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182 WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2016
2. Based on the Online Service Index (OSI), published
by the United Nations Department of Economic
and Social Affairs. The OSI assesses the range and
functionality of government-to-citizen (G2C) and
government-to-business (G2B) services offered
on the national website of each of the UN’s 193
member states, from simple one-way provision of
information, to two-way interaction, to integrated
“one-stop” portals. This functionality is based on the
standard three-stage classification of e-services in
the literature. Informational services are basic websites
where citizens can obtain information on government
ministries and agencies, access archives,
and download forms to apply for public services.
Transactional services are chiefly two-way online
communications for governments to share information
and solicit feedback, and often on government
websites that process financial transactions, such as
electronic tax filing. Connected services are citizencentric,
whole-of-government services. Institutional
reform and advanced technologies enable citizens to
automatically receive benefits based on life-cycle or
economic characteristics. They also allow agencies
to easily share data to facilitate service delivery. And
they encourage accountability through monitoring
and feedback mechanisms. Depending on the
intended beneficiary, these services can be classified
as government-to-government (G2G), G2C, or G2B
(UN 2014).
3. For this Report, the World Bank has developed
two indexes to measure e-government. The Core
Systems index measures the automation and integration
of core G2G financial and human resource
management systems, as well as revenue-related
G2B and G2C systems, in 198 countries, drawing
on a global dataset of e-government systems developed
by the World Bank. The Digital Identification
Systems index measures the presence and scope of
digital identification systems in government that
can serve as a foundational platform technology for
myriad G2G, G2C, and G2B services, also drawing
on a global dataset of these systems developed by
the World Bank. These datasets were prepared by a
World Bank team comprising Cem Dener, Sophiko
Skhirtladze, Irene H. Zhang, and Doruk Yarin
Kiroglu.
4. Reddick and Turner 2012; Gauld, Goldfinch, and
Horsburgh 2010.
5. UN 2014.
6. Tomlinson and others 2013.
7. Agarwal and Labrique 2014.
8. World Bank 2012.
9. Kradt-Todd and others 2015.
10. Corbacho, Cibils, and Lora 2013.
11. Perez-Truglia and Troiano 2015; Bø, Slemrod, and
Thoresen 2014. For a review of the literature, see
Luttmer and Singhal 2014.
12. Ayres, Raseman, and Shih 2009.
13. World Bank 2015c.
14. World Bank 2015c.
15. Muralidharan, Niehaus, and Sukhtankar 2014.
16. See http://global.census.okfn.org/.
17. Chopra 2014; Sunstein 2013; Goldstein and Dyson
2013.
18. Bayern 2015.
19. These perceptions are based on the World Bank
Enterprise Survey panel dataset (2008/09 and
2012/13) from the European and Central Asian
countries.
20. Kochanova, Hasnain, and Larson, forthcoming.
21. World Bank 2015b; WDI.
22. Deloitte 2012; Yilmaz and Coolidge 2013.
23. World Bank 2014a.
24. Doing Business (World Bank).
25. Lewis-Faupel and others 2014.
26. Krishna 2015.
27. Heeks 2003.
28. Sjoberg, Mellon, and Peixoto 2014.
29. World Bank 2015d.
30. Peixoto and Fox 2015.
31. Presentation given at the World Bank on ASAN
Xidmet centers by the government of Azerbaijan;
Majeed 2014.
32. Based on data received from LAPOR.
33. Based on discussions with government officials.
34. Cantijoch, Galandini, and Gobson 2014.
35. Bhatti, Kusek, and Verheijen 2015.
36. WDR 2016 team based on data received from the
government of Punjab.
37. Astrom and others 2013.
38. Chaudhury and others 2006.
39. Dhaliwal and Hanna 2014; Muralidharan and others
2014.
40. Duflo, Hanna, and Ryan 2012; Cilliers and others
2013; Callen and others 2014; Aker and Ksoll 2015;
Dhaliwal and Hanna 2014; Adelman and others 2015.
41. WDR 2016 team based on data from the government
of Punjab.
42. Oxford Policy Management 2015.
43. Bloom and others 2013; Aral, Brynjolfsson, and Wu
2012.
44. World Bank 2014b.
45. Kraemer and King 2006; Baldwin, Gauld, and Goldfinch
2012.
46. For example, Bill Clinton, former president of the
United States, reportedly said that “in the new
century, liberty will spread by cell phone and cable
modem” (see http://www.techlawjournal.com
/trade/20000309.htm).
47. Effective service delivery requires sound mechanisms
for holding policy makers and bureaucracies
accountable. Democracy is one, but not the only,
political system for establishing strong relationships
of accountability.