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The Input of Psychology in Methodological Considerations of Cross Cultural Marketing Research 252 to control the expectations, guesses or hypotheses on the part of the subject when coming into contact with the researcher, is by attempting to communicate one's aims, assimilating them to the most common spheres of education and medicine (Frijda & Jahoda, 1969). Interpreting the findings The complexity of the culture-variate situation renders interpretation hazardous. Alternative interpretations are often hard to exclude in marketing research. Attribution, for example, of some specific personality trait to some cultural group usually carries three connotations: supposed transsituational generality; relative immutability of the behaviour concerned when in new situations; and early origin during the life-cycle (Frijda & Jahoda, 1969). These assumptions, though, cannot be made unless they have been explicitly and systematically examined. Too readily, behaviours are taken to be parts of a pattern, elements of some "cultural orientation", instead of specifically learned, isolated reaction tendencies. The unity of culture and culture-training should not, however, be overrated and taken as an axiom in interpretative efforts (Frijda & Jahoda, 1969). It is easy to be illegitimately drawn to the conclusion that if similarity among groups is found then some universal process is involved (Strodtbeck, 1969) but this should not be concluded unless it is supported by valid and reliable findings. It has been argued that establishing that a culture has an effect on behaviour is a much easier task than establishing that culture does not matter. This is because it is difficult to distinguish between total failure in communication and total difference in perception (Strodtbeck, 1964). It is, therefore, the marketing researcher's responsibility to interpret the results in an appropriate way, while baring in mind all the methodological difficulties he encountered in his study. Conclusion Although there are certain products and markets, for which similar reactions could be identified across the globe, one may also find other sectors that differ considerably from country to country and from culture to culture. The majority of international marketing research “flops” are the apparent results of lack of cultural sensibility, a lack of recognition of certain attitudes and values that make a successful marketing mix in one country unpromising to another (Ricks, 1993). Obviously, meaningful cultural differences should lead into different marketing policies. The marketing researcher could adopt psychologists’ considerations when designing cross-cultural marketing researches. Cross-cultural psychology as well as cross-cultural marketing research seek to comprehend the systematic covariation between cultural and behavioural variables (Reynolds, 2000). Included within the term cultural are ecological and societal variables, and within the term behavioural are inferred variables. We should not forget that what we often call "human nature" is not only a reflection of human biological potential, but also a product of culture and two classes of formative experience, socialisation and enculturation (Segall et al., 1990). Together these account for both the uniformities and the diversities in the behaviour of human beings. Human behaviour must be viewed in the sociocultural context in which it occurs, if we are truly to understand it (Segall et al., 1990). Traditionally, though, the cross-cultural study is one which Western industrial cultures are compared with pre-literate tribal ones. As regards the latter, however, it must be pointed out that there are hardly any cultures left that remain unaffected by Western ideas and technologies (Frijda & Jahoda, 1969). Most cultures have lost their traditional identity and have given in the pressures of the "more civilised people". This has a positive side: the methodological problems have become easier to overcome. Information, regular contact and easier accessibility have helped researchers to approach different cultures with more confidence. But, this has also had a negative impact on cross-cultural marketing research: in some respects, cross-cultural studies have lost their biggest advantage: the study of the unknown.
253 Christina Giannakopoulou, George Siomkos and Aikaterini Vassilikopoulou Moreover, cross-cultural marketing studies are associated with numerous methodological difficulties, some of which are often impossible to overcome. Although solutions have been suggested to most of the problems, the lack of time, funding, and accessibility often makes it difficult for these suggestions to be put into practice. This is by no means a good reason to abandon this very important type of research. Despite the fundamental and administrative difficulties associated with cross-cultural research, the rewards are significant and the move away from singular location studies to more comparative research is to be encouraged. Finally, it must be noted that the more kinds of information available, the more sure we can be of our findings (Irvine & Carroll, 1980). This means that cross-cultural marketing studies often have to use more than one method of data collection; they have to be embraced by researcher; and crosscultural and general experimental findings have to be integrated. This is the only way to ensure that cross-cultural marketing research conclusions are based on validated findings.
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