Constructing Ionian identities: the Ionian Islands in British official ...

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middle and upper classes, who demanded both novelty and authenticity in travel accounts. Travellers’ writings could also influence how their readers might view an area or peoples, but these representations were fluid and representations could be influenced by political circumstances. At the start of the nineteenth century, Greece, apart from her antiquities, the remains of her glorious past, was viewed by many as an impoverished ugly land, full of thieves and superstitious clergy, administered by corrupt Ottomans. But through the poetry of Lord Byron, a supporter of Greek independence, the beauty of the country’s landscape was rediscovered and native Greeks were admired as he lent them a romantic glory in their struggle for independence. They were “the heirs of an antique Grecian world, classical figures in a classical landscape.” 87 Yet Jenkyns notes that by the 1830s the Greeks had lost much of their glamour and in the 1850s Greek discontent at the British alliance with Turkey in the Crimean War made them “unpopular” with many Britons. 88 During the first few decades of the nineteenth century, many Britons became fascinated by ancient Greek culture, promoted by the Dilettante society, as evidenced in literature, architecture, furniture and even dress. 89 The fascination with classical Greek cultural artefacts was rooted in the British need “to recognise itself and to find the right location for new and different intellectual dimensions... organising itself around words such as civilisation”. 90 As a result, many writers visiting the Septinsula initially had a romanticised idealisation of the Islands based upon classical Greek 87 Tsigakou F. M., The Rediscovery of Greece: Travellers and Painters of the Romantic Era, (London, 1981), p. 8. 88 Jenkyns R., The Victorians and Ancient Greece (Oxford, 1980), pp. 15-17; Miliori M., “The Greek Nation in British Eyes”. 89 Jenkyns R., The Victorians and Ancient Greece, p. 15. 46
literature, particularly Homeric texts, and viewed the Islands and landscape with these expectations. 91 Ansted found “the island of Ulysses” the perfect place because the Ithaca of the present was, in his mind, the Ithaca of the past. The houses were remarkably “well built”, “neat” and the roads in “good condition”. 92 Frances Maclellan believed Corfu’s popularity owed much to its ancient history and her English party often engaged in historical studies of Corfu: “With Homer in hand we went on, step by step comparing his description with the scenes around us... this description is correct.” 93 The reality of life in the Septinsula and of the Ionian peoples was intermixed with myth, history, imaginative and literary constructs of the Islands. Many writers emphasised the double mirror between past and present perceptions of the Islands, which created an unresolved and unfinished process in their formulation and reformulation of Ionian identities. The travellers’ observations about the classical “ruins” also enabled them to “reduce current societies to vestiges of a glorious past”. 94 The stereotypes produced by travel writers concerning the Ionian Islands were not simply an argument about ‘others’, but were characteristic of travel literature as colonial rhetoric, an attempt to convince their readers to adopt a 90 Curti E., “Re-inventing Pheidias: Athens, modern Britain and the Politics of Culture”, paper given at Neale Colloquium in British History 2000 at (University College London, 4th March 2000), pp. 13- 14. 91 Jenkyns R., The Victorians and Ancient Greece, p. 15. See also Maclellan F. Sketches of Corfu (London, 1835), pp. 30, 77; Lear E. Views in the Seven Ionian Islands; Kendrick T. C., The Ionian Islands (London, 1822), pp. 1, 96, 99. 92 Ansted D. T., The Ionian Islands in the year 1863 (London, 1863), pp. 236-238, 248-49. 93 Maclellan F. Sketches of Corfu, pp. 77. 94 Mills S., Discourses of Difference: An Analysis Of Women’s Travel Writing and Colonialism (New York and London, 1991), p. 14. 47
Page 1 and 2: Constructing Ionian Identities: The
Page 3 and 4: Abstract Utilising material such as
Page 5 and 6: I owe a great debt to Alison Kitson
Page 7 and 8: Table of Contents Introduction: Con
Page 9 and 10: Introduction.......................
Page 11 and 12: examined the establishment of the I
Page 13 and 14: This thesis examines the processes
Page 15 and 16: journeys facilitated “the continu
Page 17 and 18: approaches and interpretations to p
Page 19 and 20: Fallmerayer and George Finlay about
Page 21 and 22: during the examination of the Ionia
Page 23 and 24: examine internationality, to explor
Page 25 and 26: ‘nationality’ of the inhabitant
Page 27 and 28: Holland and Markides's focus on Gla
Page 29 and 30: century. 31 Her work demonstrates t
Page 31 and 32: “foundational text” of postcolo
Page 33 and 34: national identity. 45 She argued it
Page 35 and 36: emains an important contribution to
Page 37 and 38: prevailing historiographical myths
Page 39 and 40: such as John Stuart Mill argued “
Page 41 and 42: qualities of women and instilling t
Page 43 and 44: context of the Empire, this placed
Page 45: This focus on difference, which inc
Page 49 and 50: fascinated by their local festivals
Page 51 and 52: theatre, opera houses and religious
Page 53 and 54: ut used it to explain elements of I
Page 55 and 56: years would be, I am convinced an e
Page 57 and 58: British ambiguities in their repres
Page 59 and 60: William Gladstone. Collectively the
Page 61 and 62: The British Parliamentary Papers pr
Page 63 and 64: governments. Politically, Venice or
Page 65 and 66: Economically, the Ionian Islands su
Page 67 and 68: permanent, ultimately had a long-te
Page 69 and 70: Summary of the chapters. Chapter on
Page 71 and 72: power as the most effective way to
Page 73 and 74: The conclusion reiterates the compl
Page 75 and 76: destroyed and occupied lucrative Fr
Page 77 and 78: Fifteen years of vigorous devotion
Page 79 and 80: to avoid the kind of slave revolt i
Page 81 and 82: at preserving the integrity of the
Page 83 and 84: authorities for this purpose”. 27
Page 85 and 86: political situation following the m
Page 87 and 88: centuries under Venetian and Russia
Page 89 and 90: the Septinsula, which led to the de
Page 91 and 92: evolt in 1791 led by Toussaint l’
Page 93 and 94: Maitland's administration “was an
Page 95 and 96: effectively summarised his characte
Page 97 and 98:
on the state, character, and condit
Page 99 and 100:
political behaviour under their pre
Page 101 and 102:
In Madras, Bentinck held more liber
Page 103 and 104:
Castlereagh complained of Bentinck
Page 105 and 106:
and miscellaneous subjects. 105 The
Page 107 and 108:
majority of laws passed during the
Page 109 and 110:
and direction of European territori
Page 111 and 112:
of these debates on 23 February 182
Page 113 and 114:
despotism under the disguise of a r
Page 115 and 116:
with “young men from England, …
Page 117 and 118:
Ionian individuals. Goulburn interp
Page 119 and 120:
119 “…We [are their] Guardians
Page 121 and 122:
Henry argued Maitland’s obsession
Page 123 and 124:
authorised to correct the abuses an
Page 125 and 126:
“The Lord High Commissioner gover
Page 127 and 128:
existing constitution of the Ionian
Page 129 and 130:
Islands to deal with Ionian complai
Page 131 and 132:
he ceded the territory of Parga, a
Page 133 and 134:
who did not obey with exile and con
Page 135 and 136:
was killed and three were wounded.
Page 137 and 138:
ule in the Islands. 86 What mattere
Page 139 and 140:
elieved authoritarian government wa
Page 141 and 142:
consideration and benevolent thinki
Page 143 and 144:
Conclusion. The Constitution of 181
Page 145 and 146:
Chapter 3: Debating the reform of t
Page 147 and 148:
followed: an improved criminal code
Page 149 and 150:
Nugent’s policy in the Islands di
Page 151 and 152:
eform without the Colonial Office
Page 153 and 154:
To Kirkpatrick, a member of the Sup
Page 155 and 156:
candidate in Liverpool in 1832 and
Page 157 and 158:
passion, lack of self-control and r
Page 159 and 160:
Ionian families the economic burden
Page 161 and 162:
Constantinople and win assent to th
Page 163 and 164:
their surplus revenue. Moreover, al
Page 165 and 166:
Mediterranean. They were important
Page 167 and 168:
Douglas’s view of the “very bac
Page 169 and 170:
Charles Grant, Lord Glenelg, was a
Page 171 and 172:
Assembly retaliated by systematical
Page 173 and 174:
was sceptical of the property regul
Page 175 and 176:
He was familiar with imperial polit
Page 177 and 178:
unlawful. 112 Stephen’s opinion w
Page 179 and 180:
Mustoxidi. As European peoples with
Page 181 and 182:
material improvements in the Island
Page 183 and 184:
corruption, and in the next place,
Page 185 and 186:
supported Douglas’s argument that
Page 187 and 188:
Chapter 4: Seaton’s reform progra
Page 189 and 190:
learned European languages. 6 His l
Page 191 and 192:
political institutions and sought m
Page 193 and 194:
suggested by Gladstone during his m
Page 195 and 196:
British administration ruled the Is
Page 197 and 198:
societies failed politically unless
Page 199 and 200:
promised there would be no misuse o
Page 201 and 202:
Indies. In Lord Melbourne’s minis
Page 203 and 204:
New Zealand, where Grey proposed a
Page 205 and 206:
critics. Believing the issue would
Page 207 and 208:
policy to prepare the Ionians for r
Page 209 and 210:
the power of traditional institutio
Page 211 and 212:
military ports and harbours and to
Page 213 and 214:
wounded and several casualties for
Page 215 and 216:
Ionians, especially those without p
Page 217 and 218:
Parliament, trusting Seaton’s ass
Page 219 and 220:
were marked in the margin of the te
Page 221 and 222:
government practised in other parts
Page 223 and 224:
and was considered a “radical lea
Page 225 and 226:
too far on the franchise. 12 Privat
Page 227 and 228:
as the use of patronage, which he b
Page 229 and 230:
Ward believed Ionians ought to exer
Page 231 and 232:
civilised nation, was fit to govern
Page 233 and 234:
that at this time, they were not ye
Page 235 and 236:
a rural struggle against the ruling
Page 237 and 238:
and dismembering of some victims. 6
Page 239 and 240:
joined the Risospasti and expressed
Page 241 and 242:
and Cephalonian affairs. Papanicola
Page 243 and 244:
protection in favour of union with
Page 245 and 246:
there “was something in the posse
Page 247 and 248:
Although Ward privately opposed con
Page 249 and 250:
British protection and the administ
Page 251 and 252:
evised their regulations to make it
Page 253 and 254:
the Senate took the recess of Parli
Page 255 and 256:
have been formed in the English sch
Page 257 and 258:
Islands and making Corfu a colony,
Page 259 and 260:
the existing penalties for direct p
Page 261 and 262:
only get support if he offered patr
Page 263 and 264:
as his opinions regarding Ward's fa
Page 265 and 266:
successor's, Sir John Young's, tenu
Page 267 and 268:
offered a critical view of British
Page 269 and 270:
egan in November 1853 following Rus
Page 271 and 272:
people”. 16 The Risospasti used t
Page 273 and 274:
when dealing with the Assembly. 25
Page 275 and 276:
accept Ionian candidates. Excluding
Page 277 and 278:
superiors to be apprehensive of his
Page 279 and 280:
advocated the union of the Islands
Page 281 and 282:
problems of British rule in the Isl
Page 283 and 284:
Gladstone entered politics as a Tor
Page 285 and 286:
greater responsibility over their o
Page 287 and 288:
Islands connected to Britain. Like
Page 289 and 290:
shared. 85 Gladstone was also an ou
Page 291 and 292:
Ionian Protectorate in the Colonial
Page 293 and 294:
serve as Lord High Commissioner for
Page 295 and 296:
“presents at once the symptoms of
Page 297 and 298:
esulting in the rise of a radical n
Page 299 and 300:
that, with time, the Ionians would
Page 301 and 302:
emaining members nominated by the L
Page 303 and 304:
elationship with a “quarrelsome
Page 305 and 306:
autocratic measures in ruling the E
Page 307 and 308:
impossible. The geographical positi
Page 309 and 310:
nominations were by the Lord High C
Page 311 and 312:
friend Sidney Herbert that his cons
Page 313 and 314:
and imperial supremacy. In the end
Page 315 and 316:
for the post. After the fall of Der
Page 317 and 318:
tone, claiming “the greatest obje
Page 319 and 320:
and other Peelites, “dedicated to
Page 321 and 322:
Prorogation of the Assembly continu
Page 323 and 324:
providing for the substitution of a
Page 325 and 326:
prorogued the Assembly for six mont
Page 327 and 328:
him was that even the most trusted
Page 329 and 330:
condition would move them away from
Page 331 and 332:
conclusive and Storks’s request w
Page 333 and 334:
inclusion of Ionians in examination
Page 335 and 336:
they were not suited for “self-go
Page 337 and 338:
candidates had the “moral courage
Page 339 and 340:
Unlike his predecessors, Storks did
Page 341 and 342:
The Colonial Office defended Storks
Page 343 and 344:
capital. 112 However, such desires
Page 345 and 346:
good impression “with his simplic
Page 347 and 348:
In 1862, Palmerston found a solutio
Page 349 and 350:
At the time of the rumours the Colo
Page 351 and 352:
advantages of personal security and
Page 353 and 354:
Conclusion In the aftermath of Glad
Page 355 and 356:
Conclusion During their years as a
Page 357 and 358:
Correspondence between the Lord Hig
Page 359 and 360:
deserved either representative or r
Page 361 and 362:
constitutional reforms, he introduc
Page 363 and 364:
justify Ionian unfitness for respon
Page 365 and 366:
constructed binary oppositions and
Page 367 and 368:
British parliamentary papers, XXXII
Page 369 and 370:
Lear E., Views in the Seven Ionian
Page 371 and 372:
Synedriou, [Proceedings of the 4th
Page 373 and 374:
Panioniou Synedriou [Proceedings of
Page 375 and 376:
Chytitiris G., “Young and Gladsto
Page 377 and 378:
Dixon C. W., The Colonial Administr
Page 379 and 380:
Hall C. and Rose S., “Introductio
Page 381 and 382:
Iremonger L., Lord Aberdeen, (Londo
Page 383 and 384:
Knox B. A., “British Policy and t
Page 385 and 386:
Makris T., “I eleutherotipia ke I
Page 387 and 388:
Morrell W. P., British Colonial Pol
Page 389 and 390:
Paximadopoulou-Stavrinou M., Oi eks
Page 391 and 392:
Sainty J. C., Colonial Office Offic
Page 393 and 394:
Stringos A., I Epanastasi tou ‘21
Page 395 and 396:
Woodhouse C. M., The Greek War of I
Page 397:
Tumelty J. J., “The Ionian Island
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