RESEARCHof malaria-infected mosquitoes significantly shifted to theright, compared with the negative control group (Figure2, panel H). Finally, the positive control group of mosquitoesfed with the blood mixed with hemozoin (60 μg/mL)also showed traces of a high amplitude (Figure 2, panel H,green bars). This experiment demonstrated the feasibilityof the rapid noninvasive detection of individual oocystcarryingmosquitoes. We propose that vapor nanobubblescan be generated around residual hemozoin in developingoocysts or similar dense forms of heme formed by the malariaparasites at this stage (32,33).These results provide a proof-of-principle for the H-VNB technology as a unique noninvasive transdermaldiagnostic tool for malarial infection in humans and mosquitoes.The next step is to optimize the prototype witha malaria-specific laser operating at 672 nm for a bettersensitivity (22). Such prototype will be evaluated in largescalestudies in humans in clinical and field settings in malaria-endemiccountries. Although the estimated cost of abattery-powered device (size of a shoebox) is US $15,000,a single unit will be able to test ≈200,000 persons each yearwithout any additional cost (e.g., specialized staff, facilities,and diagnostic reagents); thus, the cost of the individualtest may be well below that of a rapid diagnostic test.The device may be able to diagnose asymptomatic and lowdensityinfections, undetectable by microscopy and rapiddiagnostic tests and could be deployed for mass screeningand treatment or at border control points (a major advantagewould be the speed at which results will be available).The presence of hemozoin in all blood stages and types ofmalaria parasites (25,26) ensures the broad and universalapplication of our method, even without differentiation ofthe malaria species. The rapid and simple detection of malaria-infectedmosquitoes could provide an easy tool to estimatethe transmission intensity, contributing to the effortsof malaria transmission reduction and local elimination.AcknowledgmentsWe thank K. Keene, A. Garbino, P. Hotez, S. Hoxhaj,K. Mattox, J. Braam, and J. Olson for their support andassistance with the study.Studies in the laboratory of N.K. are supported by NationalInstitutes of Health grants (AI47089 and AI101427).The patent application for the method described has beenfiled by Rice University.The authors have the following competing financial interests:M.B. for Standa UAB; A.K. for X Instruments LLC; T.K. andA.H. for Precision Acoustics Ltd.Dr. Lukianova-Hleb is a research scientist at Rice University.Her research interests include nanophotonics and nanomedicinewith the focus on cancer and infectious diseases.References1. Sturrock HJ, Hsiang MS, Cohen JM, Smith DL,Greenhouse B, Bousema T, et al. 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