Craniofacial Muscles

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7 Motor Control of Masticatory Muscles127that training in a novel tongue-protrusion task results in a signi fi cantly improvedsuccessful task performance in 1 week, but even as quickly as within 15 min. Thishas been associated with a signi fi cantly increased tongue motor representation and/or decreased threshold of TMS-evoked tongue responses within the face MI(Svensson et al. 2006 ; Boudreau et al. 2007 ; Zhang et al. 2010 ) . While tongue MIchanges may re fl ect changes in motor experience consistent with the concept of“use-dependent neuroplasticity” (Nudo et al. 1996 ) , the close correlation betweensuccessful tongue task performance and the rapid onset of tongue MI neuroplasticitysuggests that the tongue MI changes are necessary for achieving the improvedmotor performance of the learned novel task consistent with the principle of “use itand improve it” (Kleim and Jones 2008 ) .Many dental procedures can be associated with postoperative acute pain thatsometimes develops into a chronic pain condition. Clinical practice indicates thatpain conditions can modify patients’ orofacial motor behaviors and jeopardize theirmotor performance (Svensson et al. 2004 ; Sessle 2006, 2010 ; Sessle et al. 2008 ) .While acute pain is commonly known to evoke protective brainstem re fl ex circuits,intraoral pain induced by injection of the algesic glutamate into the tongue in ratsand application of capsaicin to the tongue in healthy humans has been associatedwith decreased face MI excitability (Boudreau et al. 2007 ; Adachi et al. 2008 ) , consistentwith the “Pain Adaptation Model,” whereby decreased face MI excitabilityand limitation of movements serve as a protective mechanism of the orofacial tissues/muscles(Lund et al. 1991 ; Murray and Peck 2007 ) . Chronic pain conditions,such as TMD in humans, have been associated with face SI and face MI neuroplasticity(Moayedi et al. 2011 ; Weissman-Fogel et al. 2011 ) . However, it is not clearwhether the cortical changes predispose subjects to develop chronic pain or whetherthey are adaptive, or maladaptive, responses to the pain condition. Neuroplasticitywithin SI and MI also is associated with behavioral maladaptation and sensorimotordysfunctions such as embouchure dystonia in woodwind and brass musicians, ordysphagia, dysarthria, or impaired mastication following CNS injuries such as stroke(Sessle et al. 2007 ; Martin 2009 ; Haslinger et al. 2010 ) .7.6 ConclusionsIn summary, the fi ndings reviewed in this chapter underscore the crucial role playedby face sensorimotor cortex in sensorimotor integration and control of the masticatorymuscles and its remarkable capacity for neuroplasticity. Neurophysiologicalchanges occur within the face SI and face MI when the oral environment is altered,and raise the possibility that such cortical changes re fl ect adaptive mechanisms thatmay be crucial in determining how well a person adapts to oral alterations, such asdentures, implants, pain, and/or nerve damage. Yet, the cortical plasticity also mayre fl ect changes that can lead to the susceptibility of healthy subjects to develop avariety of chronic sensorimotor dysfunctional conditions. They also suggest thatthere may be cortical templates for a variety of familiar, learned orofacial motor
128 B.J. Sessle et al.activities. Speech is one such activity involving the masticatory muscles. While itsconsideration is beyond the scope of this chapter, cortical mechanisms are clearlycrucial to the fi ne control and coordination of the various muscles, including masticatorymuscles, participating in voice production and articulation of speech sounds,both when a child is learning to speak and once speech has been learned. In addition,since alteration in somatosensory inputs to the CNS has been associated withneuroplasticity within other cortical and subcortical regions (e.g., brainstem)involved in the control of masticatory muscles (Kis et al. 2004 ; Sessle 2006 ) , it ispossible that some of the neuroplastic changes observed within face MI and face SIare secondary to changes manifested within the other cortical or subcorticalregions.Acknowledgements Studies of the authors were supported by: grant DE04786 of the US NationalInstitute of Dental and Craniofacial Research; CIHR grant MT-4918, the Australian DentalResearch Foundation, Inc.; and NHMRC of Australia , grant #512309. BJS is the recipient of aCanada Research Chair.ReferencesAdachi K, Lee JC, Hu JW, Yao D, Sessle BJ (2007) Motor cortex neuroplasticity associated withlingual nerve injury in rats. Somatosens Mot Res 24:97–109Adachi K, Murray GM, Lee JC, Sessle BJ (2008) Noxious lingual stimulation in fl uences the excitabilityof the face primary motor cerebral cortex (face MI) in the rat. J Neurophysiol100:1234–1244Aramideh M, De Visser BWO (2002) Brainstem re fl exes: electrodiagnostic techniques, physiology,normative data, and clinical applications. Muscle Nerve 26:14–30Avivi-Arber L, Lee JC, Sessle BJ (2010) Effects of incisor extraction on jaw and tongue motorrepresentations within face sensorimotor cortex of adult rats. J Comp Neurol 7:1030–1045Avivi-Arber L, Lee JC, Sessle BJ (2011a) Face sensorimotor cortex neuroplasticity associated withoral alterations. In: Gossard JP, Kolta A, Dubuc R (eds) Breathing, walking and chewing.Elsevier, New YorkAvivi-Arber L, Martin RE, Sessle BJ (2011b) Face sensorimotor cortex and its neuroplasticityrelated to orofacial sensorimotor functions. Arch Oral Biol 58(12):1440–1465Barnes SJ, Finnerty GT (2010) Sensory experience and cortical rewiring. Neuroscientist16:186–198Boudreau S, Romaniello A, Wang K, Svensson P, Sessle BJ, Arendt-Nielsen L (2007) The effectsof intra-oral pain on motor cortex neuroplasticity associated with short-term novel tongueprotrusiontraining in humans. Pain 132:169–178Curtis N (2011) Craniofacial biomechanics: an overview of recent multibody modelling studies.J Anat 218:16–25Dubner R, Sessle BJ, Storey AT (1978) The neural basis of oral and facial function. Plenum Press,New YorkEbner FF (2005) Neural plasticity in adult somatic sensory-motor systems. CRS Press, BocaRaton, FLGuggenmos DJ, Barbay S, Bethel-Brown C, Nudo RJ, Stanford JA (2009) Effects of tongue forcetraining on orolingual motor cortical representation. Behav Brain Res 201:229–232
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Craniofacial Muscles
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EditorsLinda K. McLoonDepartment of
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viContents8 Masticatory Muscle Resp
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viiiContributorsMark Lewis School o
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Chapter 1The Craniofacial Muscles:
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1 The Craniofacial Muscles: Argumen
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1 The Craniofacial Muscles: Argumen
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Chapter 2Head Muscle DevelopmentIta
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2 Head Muscle Development132.3 Head
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2 Head Muscle Development15Fig. 2.3
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2 Head Muscle Development17normal h
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2 Head Muscle Development19to specu
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2 Head Muscle Development21as Islet
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2 Head Muscle Development232.10 Sum
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2 Head Muscle Development25Hirsinge
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2 Head Muscle Development27Rudnicki
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Part IIIExtraocular Muscles
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32 L.K. McLoon et al.Fig. 3.1 Diagr
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34 L.K. McLoon et al.Fig. 3.4 Speci
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36 L.K. McLoon et al.3.4 Unusual Ch
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38 L.K. McLoon et al.Fig. 3.7 Longi
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40 L.K. McLoon et al.Fig. 3.8 Co-ex
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42 L.K. McLoon et al.Fig. 3.9 An ex
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44 L.K. McLoon et al.Fig. 3.10 Use
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46 L.K. McLoon et al.3.9 SummaryIn
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48 L.K. McLoon et al.Fuchs AF, Bind
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50 L.K. McLoon et al.Tajbakhsh S, R
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52 V.E. DasFig. 4.1 Initial studies
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54 V.E. DasFig. 4.2 Schematic view
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56 V.E. DasFig. 4.3 Top panel —co
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58 V.E. Das4.3 Motor Control of Con
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60 V.E. DasFig. 4.6 Schematic showi
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62 V.E. DasFR: fi ring rateD t : ne
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64 V.E. Dasresponses of abducens ne
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66 V.E. Dasend (Buttner-Ennever et
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68 V.E. Dascontrolled by appropriat
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70 V.E. Das4.6 SummaryThe oculomoto
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72 V.E. DasHoerantner R, Kaltofen T
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Page 81 and 82: 76 F. Pedrosa Domellöfcompletely d
Page 83 and 84: 78 F. Pedrosa DomellöfFig. 5.2 NMJ
Page 85 and 86: 80 F. Pedrosa DomellöfHowever, bec
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Page 91 and 92: 86 F. Pedrosa DomellöfReferencesAg
Page 93 and 94: 88 F. Pedrosa DomellöfMori M, Kuwa
Page 95 and 96: Chapter 6Masticatory Muscle Structu
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Page 115 and 116: 112 B.J. Sessle et al.zygomaticus m
Page 117 and 118: 114 B.J. Sessle et al.Fig. 7.1 ( a
Page 119 and 120: 116 B.J. Sessle et al.Most of the m
Page 121 and 122: 118 B.J. Sessle et al.lie immediate
Page 123 and 124: 120 B.J. Sessle et al.(Dubner et al
Page 125 and 126: 122 B.J. Sessle et al.Fig. 7.3 An e
Page 127 and 128: 124 B.J. Sessle et al.that each out
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Page 133 and 134: 130 B.J. Sessle et al.Moayedi M, We
Page 135 and 136: 132 S.L. Hebert et al.type 3 and cr
Page 137 and 138: 134 S.L. Hebert et al.This early de
Page 139 and 140: 136 S.L. Hebert et al.that EMG valu
Page 141 and 142: 138 S.L. Hebert et al.Newton JP, Ab
Page 143 and 144: Chapter 9Structure and Function of
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Page 169 and 170: Chapter 10Motor Control and Biomech
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10 Motor Control and Biomechanics o
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186 J.C. Stemple et al.established
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188 J.C. Stemple et al.of protein d
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190 J.C. Stemple et al.the depictio
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192 J.C. Stemple et al.Fig. 11.2 Ul
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194 J.C. Stemple et al.11.6 Larynge
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196 J.C. Stemple et al.Neurapraxia,
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198 J.C. Stemple et al.of the preci
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200 J.C. Stemple et al.Gardner GM,
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202 J.C. Stemple et al.Rhee HS, Luc
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Part VITongue Musculature
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208 A. Sokoloff and T. BurkholderTh
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210 A. Sokoloff and T. BurkholderFi
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212 A. Sokoloff and T. Burkholder12
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214 A. Sokoloff and T. Burkholderou
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216 A. Sokoloff and T. Burkholderbe
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218 A. Sokoloff and T. Burkholderel
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220 A. Sokoloff and T. BurkholderFi
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222 A. Sokoloff and T. BurkholderCo
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224 A. Sokoloff and T. BurkholderAn
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226 A. Sokoloff and T. BurkholderOl
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Chapter 13Tongue Biomechanics and M
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Fig. 13.1 Retrogradely labeled enti
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13 Tongue Biomechanics and Motor Co
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Chapter 14Tongue Muscle Responseto
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14 Tongue Muscle Response to Neurom
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Part VIIFacial Muscles
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266 A.O. Grobbelaar and A.C.S. Wool
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288 J. Park et al.Table 16.1 Disord
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290 J. Park et al.Table 16.2 Jankov
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292 J. Park et al.16.2.3 Pathophysi
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294 J. Park et al.evident eyelid sq
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296 J. Park et al.Focal motor seizu
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298 J. Park et al.Fig. 16.1 Content
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300 J. Park et al.Botox ® in human
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302 J. Park et al.Long-term effect
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304 J. Park et al.is as high as 50%
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306 J. Park et al.Table 16.4 Drugs
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308 J. Park et al.septum should be
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310 J. Park et al.16.9 Hemifacial S
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312 J. Park et al.16.9.5 TreatmentB
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314 J. Park et al.regeneration beca
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316 J. Park et al.Alderson K, Holds
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318 J. Park et al.Grandas F, Elston
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320 J. Park et al.McCord CD Jr (198
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Part VIIISummary and Conclusions
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326 L.K. McLoon and F.H. Andrade17.
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332 L.K. McLoon and F.H. AndradeDie
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334 L.K. McLoon and F.H. AndradeSam
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IndexAAbducens nucleusvs. lateral r
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Index339Embryonic myosin heavy chai
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IndexLLagophthalmos , 304, 308Lamin
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Indexmuscular dystrophy , 187-190my
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Index345hydrostat mass reduction ,
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