Craniofacial Muscles

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4 Motor Control of Extraocular Muscle55implementation of Listing’s law (Demer 2004 ) . Subsequent neurophysiological andelectrical stimulation studies in the abducens nerve by Angelaki and colleaguesshowed that there was indeed no neural implementation of Listing’s law in the brainand therefore Listing’s Law must be implemented mechanically (Ghasia andAngelaki 2005 ; Klier et al. 2006, 2011 ) . Although it appears that the pulleys canobviate the necessity for central control of torsion required by Listing’s law, thebrain needs to provide control signals for torsion that deviates from Listing’s lawsuch as during convergence, the vestibulo-ocular re fl ex, and head-free gaze shifts(Crawford et al. 1999 ; Demer et al. 2003 ) .The initial studies by Miller and colleagues suggested that the pulley structuresstabilized muscle paths in the posterior orbit (Miller et al. 1993 ) . The functionalsigni fi cance of preventing muscle sideslip is that the EOM force vector remainsconstrained. In the event of rectus muscle sideslip, perhaps due to pulley malposition,the rectus EOM force vector could be misdirected into the orthogonal planeresulting in problems of binocular coordination such as A or V patterns of strabismus(Oh et al. 2002 ) . Demer suggests that many of the cases of strabismus could infact be of biomechanical origin due to pulley problems (Demer 2001, 2004 ) .However, other studies in monkeys with a developmental strabismus induced bysensory methods have clearly demonstrated a neural origin for strabismus and apivotal neural role in maintaining the state of strabismus including the A and V patterns(Das and Mustari 2007 ; Das 2011 ; Joshi and Das 2011 ) . An example is providedin Fig. 4.3 . Corroborating these reports have been studies that examinedmuscle anatomy of monkeys with sensory strabismus that determined that the pulleystructure is in fact normal (Narasimhan et al. 2007 ) . Thus, it appears that theetiology could be important in understanding the role that EOM pulleys andmotoneuron control of EOM might play in determining eye alignment or eye movementproperties in disease states.4.2.2 Modern Approaches to Modeling of the PlantThe nonlinear properties of the oculomotor plant tissue make it dif fi cult to formulatemodels using conventional linear control systems theory and lumped elements (seeFig. 4.1 ). Lumped element models tend to oversimplify the complexity of the EOMand other plant tissue. A few laboratories have attempted to create plant modelsusing modern approaches. The fi rst such attempt was that by Miller (Orbit 1.8 software,Eidactics Inc.). The Orbit software is a sophisticated biomechanical model ofthe eye plant that allows the user to modify many parameters including strength ofinnervation of each muscle, muscle stiffness and contractility, pulley stiffness, pulleylocations, etc. The primary use proposed for this software is to simulate expectedoutcomes from strabismus surgeries (Demer et al. 1996 ; Clark et al. 1998a, b ) .Although more sophisticated than control systems models, one disadvantage of thismodel is that it only simulates static eye positions, not dynamic eye movements. Analternative to Orbit 1.8 is the SEE++ software developed by Haslwanter, Buchberger,
56 V.E. DasFig. 4.3 Top panel —comparative cross-section MRIs of a normal subject and a patient withincomitant pattern strabismus. The lateral rectus of the patient is shifted inferiorly in supraduction(adapted from Oh et al. 2002 ) . This sideslip of the rectus muscle could be the source for patternstrabismus in this patient. Bottom panels —Recording from a medial rectus motoneuron in a monkeywith sensory-induced strabismus. As expected, during horizontal smooth-pursuit, this rightburst-tonic(BT) neuron is modulated in correlation with movement of the left eye. During verticalpursuit with the right eye viewing (right column), there is an inappropriate horizontal componentin the left eye that is the dynamic equivalent to an A-pattern strabismus. The motoneuron showsactivity that is correlated with this horizontal component suggesting that A patterns in sensoryinducedmonkeys are due to central innervation (adapted from Joshi and Das 2011 ) . Right eye—red ; left eye— blue . Positive values indicate rightward or upward eye positions and negative valuesindicate leftward or downward eye positions
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Craniofacial Muscles
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EditorsLinda K. McLoonDepartment of
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viContents8 Masticatory Muscle Resp
Page 9 and 10: viiiContributorsMark Lewis School o
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Page 13 and 14: 1 The Craniofacial Muscles: Argumen
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Page 17 and 18: Chapter 2Head Muscle DevelopmentIta
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Page 31 and 32: 2 Head Muscle Development25Hirsinge
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Page 35 and 36: Part IIIExtraocular Muscles
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Page 53 and 54: 48 L.K. McLoon et al.Fuchs AF, Bind
Page 55 and 56: 50 L.K. McLoon et al.Tajbakhsh S, R
Page 57 and 58: 52 V.E. DasFig. 4.1 Initial studies
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Page 63 and 64: 58 V.E. Das4.3 Motor Control of Con
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Page 91 and 92: 86 F. Pedrosa DomellöfReferencesAg
Page 93 and 94: 88 F. Pedrosa DomellöfMori M, Kuwa
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6 Masticatory Muscle Structure and
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6 Masticatory Muscle Structure and
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112 B.J. Sessle et al.zygomaticus m
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114 B.J. Sessle et al.Fig. 7.1 ( a
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116 B.J. Sessle et al.Most of the m
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118 B.J. Sessle et al.lie immediate
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120 B.J. Sessle et al.(Dubner et al
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122 B.J. Sessle et al.Fig. 7.3 An e
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124 B.J. Sessle et al.that each out
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126 B.J. Sessle et al.2010 ; Plowma
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128 B.J. Sessle et al.activities. S
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130 B.J. Sessle et al.Moayedi M, We
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132 S.L. Hebert et al.type 3 and cr
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134 S.L. Hebert et al.This early de
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136 S.L. Hebert et al.that EMG valu
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138 S.L. Hebert et al.Newton JP, Ab
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Chapter 9Structure and Function of
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9 Structure and Function of the Lar
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Chapter 10Motor Control and Biomech
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10 Motor Control and Biomechanics o
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186 J.C. Stemple et al.established
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188 J.C. Stemple et al.of protein d
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190 J.C. Stemple et al.the depictio
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192 J.C. Stemple et al.Fig. 11.2 Ul
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194 J.C. Stemple et al.11.6 Larynge
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196 J.C. Stemple et al.Neurapraxia,
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198 J.C. Stemple et al.of the preci
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200 J.C. Stemple et al.Gardner GM,
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202 J.C. Stemple et al.Rhee HS, Luc
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Part VITongue Musculature
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208 A. Sokoloff and T. BurkholderTh
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210 A. Sokoloff and T. BurkholderFi
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212 A. Sokoloff and T. Burkholder12
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214 A. Sokoloff and T. Burkholderou
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218 A. Sokoloff and T. Burkholderel
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220 A. Sokoloff and T. BurkholderFi
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222 A. Sokoloff and T. BurkholderCo
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224 A. Sokoloff and T. BurkholderAn
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226 A. Sokoloff and T. BurkholderOl
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Chapter 13Tongue Biomechanics and M
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Fig. 13.1 Retrogradely labeled enti
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13 Tongue Biomechanics and Motor Co
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Chapter 14Tongue Muscle Responseto
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14 Tongue Muscle Response to Neurom
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Part VIIFacial Muscles
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266 A.O. Grobbelaar and A.C.S. Wool
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288 J. Park et al.Table 16.1 Disord
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290 J. Park et al.Table 16.2 Jankov
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292 J. Park et al.16.2.3 Pathophysi
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294 J. Park et al.evident eyelid sq
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296 J. Park et al.Focal motor seizu
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298 J. Park et al.Fig. 16.1 Content
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300 J. Park et al.Botox ® in human
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302 J. Park et al.Long-term effect
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304 J. Park et al.is as high as 50%
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306 J. Park et al.Table 16.4 Drugs
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308 J. Park et al.septum should be
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310 J. Park et al.16.9 Hemifacial S
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312 J. Park et al.16.9.5 TreatmentB
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314 J. Park et al.regeneration beca
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316 J. Park et al.Alderson K, Holds
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318 J. Park et al.Grandas F, Elston
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320 J. Park et al.McCord CD Jr (198
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Part VIIISummary and Conclusions
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326 L.K. McLoon and F.H. Andrade17.
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332 L.K. McLoon and F.H. AndradeDie
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334 L.K. McLoon and F.H. AndradeSam
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IndexAAbducens nucleusvs. lateral r
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Index339Embryonic myosin heavy chai
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IndexLLagophthalmos , 304, 308Lamin
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Indexmuscular dystrophy , 187-190my
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Index345hydrostat mass reduction ,
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