Craniofacial Muscles

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12 Tongue Structure and Function209Fig. 12.1 Muscle anatomy and fi ber architecture of the human tongue. ( a ) Fiber tracts of extrinsicand human intrinsic tongue muscles near midline revealed by DTI tractography (Gaige et al. 2007 ;used with permission). ( b ) Stylized diagram of the human tongue (Takemoto 2001 ; used withpermission). Note the fan-like radiation of the genioglossus and primarily vertical orientation ofthe hyoglossus. PG palatoglossus; SG styloglossus (c) Arrangement of the superior longitudinalmuscle (SL)bear super fi cial similarity to appendicular muscles. Outside the tongue body theyare discrete populations of muscle fi bers encased in an epimysium and separablefrom surrounding tissue by gentle dissection. They have discrete origins, and onecan ascribe a displacement of the whole tongue to shortening of each: GG originatesfrom the anterior mandible and pulls the tongue forward and down; HG originatesfrom the hyoid bone and pulls the tongue back and down; PG originates in the softpalate and pulls the posterior tongue up and back; SG originates from the styloidprocess and retracts the tongue. The external portions of these muscles appear to acton the tongue in the same way that limb muscles act on bones. Fibers of each ofthese muscles continue within the body of the tongue, where the epimysium losesits de fi nition and fi bers intermix with fi bers of intrinsic tongue muscles.The intrinsic muscles, inferior longitudinalis (IL), superior longitudinalis (SL),transversus (T), and verticalis (V), however, bear little similarity to the discreteappendicular and axial muscles. These muscles are not physically separate, butoccupy overlapping volumes of space. The central body of the tongue comprises alternatinglaminae of vertically and horizontally oriented fi bers, the former being theverticalis “muscle” and the latter being the transversus (Figs. 12.1 – 12.3 ). Along thedorsal and ventral surface of the tongue, fi bers that comprise the IL and SL are wovenamong intrinsic fi bers of T and V and extrinsic tongue muscle fi bers. These intrinsicmuscles fail the fi rst criterion of muscles, which is to be a discrete structure. Functionally,these fi bers modify local tongue body shape, which may include effects similar to protrusion,retrusion and dorsal bending, but they lack the discrete mechanical functionthat has made the muscle model so powerful in the appendicular system.12.2.2 Theoretical Considerations: Tongue as Deformable SolidThe muscle fi bers of the tongue are not easily divided into discrete populations, andmotion of the tongue is not well described by rigid segments with discrete articulations.The simpli fi cations that offer so much clarity in the appendicular musculature do not
210 A. Sokoloff and T. BurkholderFig. 12.2 Stylized illustration of parasagittal section of the murine tongue with photomicrographsin the mouse of boxed regions. Note alteration of Transversus (T) and Verticalis (V) fascicles (c),super fi cial T fi bers (arrow in a , asterisk in e) interlacing of V and longitudinal fi bers ( b , e ), anterior-to-posteriordistribution of motor endplate (MEP) zones in intrinsic longitudinal muscles ( b ,c , e ) and single MEP band in the oblique GG ( f ). MEPs stained for acetylcholinesterase in b – f .Calibration bar = 200 m mFig. 12.3 Coronal sections of rat and mouse tongue. ( a ) Anterior rat tongue stained for glycogen.Note intermixing of fi bers of different orientation, super fi cial continuation of transverse fi bersadjacent to epithelium ( arrow ), lateral location of vertical fi bers and medial extent of longitudinalfi bers. ( b ) Diagrammatic representation of rat anterior tongue body showing features discussed intext. ( c ) Acetylcholinesterase stain for motor endplates (MEP) in the anterior-middle mousetongue. Note MEP bands in vertical and transverse fascicles but sporadic MEPs in longitudinalfascicles indicative of in-series fi ber organization. Arrow points to lateral vertical fi bers. Calibrationbars = 200 m m
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Craniofacial Muscles
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EditorsLinda K. McLoonDepartment of
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viContents8 Masticatory Muscle Resp
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viiiContributorsMark Lewis School o
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Chapter 1The Craniofacial Muscles:
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1 The Craniofacial Muscles: Argumen
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1 The Craniofacial Muscles: Argumen
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Chapter 2Head Muscle DevelopmentIta
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2 Head Muscle Development132.3 Head
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2 Head Muscle Development15Fig. 2.3
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2 Head Muscle Development17normal h
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2 Head Muscle Development19to specu
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2 Head Muscle Development21as Islet
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2 Head Muscle Development232.10 Sum
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2 Head Muscle Development25Hirsinge
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2 Head Muscle Development27Rudnicki
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Part IIIExtraocular Muscles
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32 L.K. McLoon et al.Fig. 3.1 Diagr
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34 L.K. McLoon et al.Fig. 3.4 Speci
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36 L.K. McLoon et al.3.4 Unusual Ch
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38 L.K. McLoon et al.Fig. 3.7 Longi
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40 L.K. McLoon et al.Fig. 3.8 Co-ex
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42 L.K. McLoon et al.Fig. 3.9 An ex
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44 L.K. McLoon et al.Fig. 3.10 Use
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46 L.K. McLoon et al.3.9 SummaryIn
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48 L.K. McLoon et al.Fuchs AF, Bind
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50 L.K. McLoon et al.Tajbakhsh S, R
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52 V.E. DasFig. 4.1 Initial studies
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54 V.E. DasFig. 4.2 Schematic view
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56 V.E. DasFig. 4.3 Top panel —co
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58 V.E. Das4.3 Motor Control of Con
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60 V.E. DasFig. 4.6 Schematic showi
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62 V.E. DasFR: fi ring rateD t : ne
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64 V.E. Dasresponses of abducens ne
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66 V.E. Dasend (Buttner-Ennever et
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68 V.E. Dascontrolled by appropriat
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70 V.E. Das4.6 SummaryThe oculomoto
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72 V.E. DasHoerantner R, Kaltofen T
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74 V.E. DasTweed DB, Haslwanter TP,
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76 F. Pedrosa Domellöfcompletely d
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78 F. Pedrosa DomellöfFig. 5.2 NMJ
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80 F. Pedrosa DomellöfHowever, bec
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82 F. Pedrosa Domellöfadhesions be
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84 F. Pedrosa Domellöfshown that (
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86 F. Pedrosa DomellöfReferencesAg
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88 F. Pedrosa DomellöfMori M, Kuwa
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Chapter 6Masticatory Muscle Structu
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6 Masticatory Muscle Structure and
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112 B.J. Sessle et al.zygomaticus m
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114 B.J. Sessle et al.Fig. 7.1 ( a
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116 B.J. Sessle et al.Most of the m
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118 B.J. Sessle et al.lie immediate
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120 B.J. Sessle et al.(Dubner et al
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122 B.J. Sessle et al.Fig. 7.3 An e
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124 B.J. Sessle et al.that each out
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126 B.J. Sessle et al.2010 ; Plowma
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128 B.J. Sessle et al.activities. S
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130 B.J. Sessle et al.Moayedi M, We
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132 S.L. Hebert et al.type 3 and cr
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134 S.L. Hebert et al.This early de
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136 S.L. Hebert et al.that EMG valu
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138 S.L. Hebert et al.Newton JP, Ab
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Chapter 9Structure and Function of
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9 Structure and Function of the Lar
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14 Tongue Muscle Response to Neurom
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Part VIIFacial Muscles
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266 A.O. Grobbelaar and A.C.S. Wool
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288 J. Park et al.Table 16.1 Disord
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290 J. Park et al.Table 16.2 Jankov
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292 J. Park et al.16.2.3 Pathophysi
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294 J. Park et al.evident eyelid sq
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296 J. Park et al.Focal motor seizu
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298 J. Park et al.Fig. 16.1 Content
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300 J. Park et al.Botox ® in human
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302 J. Park et al.Long-term effect
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304 J. Park et al.is as high as 50%
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306 J. Park et al.Table 16.4 Drugs
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308 J. Park et al.septum should be
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310 J. Park et al.16.9 Hemifacial S
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312 J. Park et al.16.9.5 TreatmentB
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314 J. Park et al.regeneration beca
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316 J. Park et al.Alderson K, Holds
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318 J. Park et al.Grandas F, Elston
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320 J. Park et al.McCord CD Jr (198
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Part VIIISummary and Conclusions
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326 L.K. McLoon and F.H. Andrade17.
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332 L.K. McLoon and F.H. AndradeDie
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334 L.K. McLoon and F.H. AndradeSam
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IndexAAbducens nucleusvs. lateral r
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Index339Embryonic myosin heavy chai
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IndexLLagophthalmos , 304, 308Lamin
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Indexmuscular dystrophy , 187-190my
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Index345hydrostat mass reduction ,
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Craniofacial Muscles

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