Craniofacial Muscles

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162 L.A. Vinney and N.P. Connor9.3.3 SummaryPharyngeal muscles have primary roles in deglutition and as a secondary protectivemechanism. Muscles of the pharynx also act to prevent re fl uxate from the stomachor esophagus from entering the airway and also restrict air from entering the digestivetract. The mylohyoid’s complex hybrid muscle fi bers likely correspond to itsvarying functional roles in breathing, swallowing, and chewing. CP muscle fi bersallow for fatigue resistance and sustained muscular contraction. Studies using HRMand examining novel devices like the SED are likely to improve understanding ofand treatments for dysphagia resulting from CP dysfunction.9.4 ConclusionThe laryngeal and pharyngeal muscles subserve the highly specialized functions ofbreathing, airway protection, phonation, and deglutition. Intrinsic laryngeal muscles’high mitochondrial densities, low innervation ratios, motor endplate distributions,and the presence and proportion of their hybrid, slow tonic, and fast contractingfi bers are notable features that make them distinct from limb skeletal muscle. Thesecharacteristics provide evidence for their high energy requirements, specializednature, and diverse functional properties. Given the common presence of hybridfi bers in the CP, pharyngeal constrictors, and mylohyoid, the pharyngeal musclesalso appear to have multiple functional properties. Likewise, reports indicateunknown MyHC isoforms have been discovered in pharyngeal and laryngeal musclessuch as the mylohyoid and vocalis muscles. There are still many gaps in knowledgeabout laryngeal and pharyngeal musculature that need to be addressed in futureresearch. For example, controversies that require further study include: the presenceof the EO MyHC in intrinsic laryngeal muscles, the innervation of CP, IA, and TA,the speci fi c function of each individual extrinsic laryngeal muscles, and why andhow intrinsic laryngeal muscle fi bers in infant vary from adults. Although there iscertainly a need for more investigation into both the basic properties of these musclesand ways to improve measurement and treatment of disorders related to theirimpaired functioning, there is no question the laryngeal and pharyngeal musculaturemust be considered distinct and unique from limb skeletal muscle.ReferencesAndrade FA (2010) Extraocular muscle metabolism. In: Dartt DA (ed) Encyclopedia of the eye,vol 2. Academic, Oxford, pp 105–110Asanau A, Timoshenko AP, Prades JM, Galusca B, Martin C, Feasson L (2011) Posterior cricoarytenoidbellies: relationship between their function and histology. J Voice 25(2):e67–e73Atkinson JE (1978) Correlation analysis of the physiological factors controlling fundamental voicefrequency. J Acoust Soc Am 63(1):211–222
9 Structure and Function of the Laryngeal and Pharyngeal Muscles163Baer T, Gay T, Niimi S (1976) Control of the fundamental frequency, intensity, and register ofphonation. HLSRSR 45/46:205–210Belafsky PC (2010) Manual control of the upper esophageal sphincter. Laryngoscope 120(suppl1):S1–S16Belafsky PC, Rees CJ, Allen J, Leonard RJ (2010) Pharyngeal dilation in cricopharyngeus muscledysfunction and zenker diverticulum. Laryngoscope 120(5):889–894Burnett TA, Mann EA, Cornell SA, Ludlow CL (2003) Laryngeal elevation achieved by neuromuscularstimulation at rest. J Appl Physiol 94(1):128–134Burnett TA, Mann EA, Stoklosa JB, Ludlow CL (2005) Self-triggered functional electrical stimulationduring swallowing. J Neurophysiol 94(6):4011–4018Collett PW, Brancatisano AP, Engel LA (1986) Upper airway dimensions and movements in bronchialasthma. Am Rev Respir Dis 133(6):1143–1149Collier R (1975) Physiological, correlates of intonation patterns. J Acoust Soc Am 58(1):249–256Connor NP, Suzuki T, Lee K, Sewall GK, Heisey DM (2002) Neuromuscular junction changes inaged rat thyroarytenoid muscle. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol 111:579–586D’Antona G, Megighian A, Bortolotto S, Pellegrino MA, Marchese-Ragona R, Staf fi eri A et al(2002) Contractile properties and myosin heavy chain isoform composition in single fi bres ofhuman laryngeal muscles. J Muscle Res Cell Motil 23(3):187–195Davis MV, Merati AL, Jaradeh SS, Blumin JH (2007) Myosin heavy chain composition and fi bersize of the cricopharyngeus muscle in patients with achalasia and normal subjects. Ann OtolRhinol Laryngol 116:643–646DelGaudio JM, Sciote JJ, Carroll WR, Escalmado RM (1995) Atypical myosin heavy chain in ratlaryngeal muscle. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol 104(3):237–245Erickson D, Liberman M, Niimi S (1977) The geniohyoid and the role of the strap muscle. HaskinsLab Status Report in Speech Research (HLSRSR) SR-49:103–110Faaborg-Andersen K (1957) Electromyographic investigation of intrinsic laryngeal muscles inhumans. Acta Physiol Scand 140S:1–149Faaborg-Andersen K, Sonninen A (1960) The function of the extrinsic laryngeal muscles at differentpitch: an electromyographic and roentgenologic investigation. Acta Otolaryngol 51:89–93Feinstein B, Lindegard B, Nyman E, Wohlfart G (1955) Morphologic studies of motor units innormal human muscles. Acta Anat 23:127–142Gambino DR, Malmgren LT, Gacek RR (1990) Age-related changes in the neuromuscular junctionsin the human posterior cricoarytenoid muscles: a quantitative study. Laryngoscope 100:262–268Goyal RK, Martin SB, Shapiro J, Spechler SJ (1993) The role of cricopharyngeus muscle in pharyngoesophagealdisorders. Dysphagia 8(3):252–258Halum SL, Shemirani NL, Merati AL, Jaradeh S, Toohill RJ (2006) Electromyography fi ndings ofthe cricopharyngeus in association with ipsilateral pharyngeal and laryngeal muscles. Ann OtolRhinol Laryngol 115(4):312–316Hammond CS, Davenport PW, Hutchison A, Otto RA (1997) Motor innervation of the cricopharyngeusmuscle by the recurrent laryngeal nerve. J Appl Physiol 83(1):89–94Han Y, Wang J, Fischman DA, Biller HF, Sanders I (1999) Slow tonic muscle fi bers in thethyroarytenoid muscles of human vocal folds: a possible specialization for speech. Anat Rec256(2):146–157Hast MH (1969) The primate larynx: a comparative physiological study of intrinsic muscles. ActaOtolaryngol 67:84–92Hinrichsen C, Dulhunty A (1982) The contractile properties, histochemistry, ultrastructure andelectrophysiology of the cricothyroid and posterior cricoarytenoid muscles in the rat. J MuscleRes Cell Motil 3(2):169–190Hirano M (1969) Recent advance in laryngeal electromyography in human. Kurume Med J16(3):119–126Hiss SG, Huckabee ML (2005) Timing of pharyngeal and upper esophageal sphincter pressures asa function of normal and effortful swallowing in young healthy adults. Dysphagia 20(2):149–156Hixon TJ, Weismer G, Hoit JD (2008) Preclinical speech science. Plural Publishing, San Diego
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Craniofacial Muscles
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EditorsLinda K. McLoonDepartment of
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viContents8 Masticatory Muscle Resp
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viiiContributorsMark Lewis School o
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Chapter 1The Craniofacial Muscles:
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1 The Craniofacial Muscles: Argumen
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1 The Craniofacial Muscles: Argumen
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Chapter 2Head Muscle DevelopmentIta
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2 Head Muscle Development132.3 Head
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2 Head Muscle Development15Fig. 2.3
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2 Head Muscle Development17normal h
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2 Head Muscle Development19to specu
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2 Head Muscle Development21as Islet
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2 Head Muscle Development232.10 Sum
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2 Head Muscle Development25Hirsinge
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2 Head Muscle Development27Rudnicki
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Part IIIExtraocular Muscles
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32 L.K. McLoon et al.Fig. 3.1 Diagr
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34 L.K. McLoon et al.Fig. 3.4 Speci
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36 L.K. McLoon et al.3.4 Unusual Ch
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38 L.K. McLoon et al.Fig. 3.7 Longi
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40 L.K. McLoon et al.Fig. 3.8 Co-ex
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42 L.K. McLoon et al.Fig. 3.9 An ex
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44 L.K. McLoon et al.Fig. 3.10 Use
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46 L.K. McLoon et al.3.9 SummaryIn
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48 L.K. McLoon et al.Fuchs AF, Bind
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50 L.K. McLoon et al.Tajbakhsh S, R
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52 V.E. DasFig. 4.1 Initial studies
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54 V.E. DasFig. 4.2 Schematic view
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56 V.E. DasFig. 4.3 Top panel —co
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58 V.E. Das4.3 Motor Control of Con
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60 V.E. DasFig. 4.6 Schematic showi
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62 V.E. DasFR: fi ring rateD t : ne
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64 V.E. Dasresponses of abducens ne
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66 V.E. Dasend (Buttner-Ennever et
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68 V.E. Dascontrolled by appropriat
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70 V.E. Das4.6 SummaryThe oculomoto
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72 V.E. DasHoerantner R, Kaltofen T
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74 V.E. DasTweed DB, Haslwanter TP,
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76 F. Pedrosa Domellöfcompletely d
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78 F. Pedrosa DomellöfFig. 5.2 NMJ
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80 F. Pedrosa DomellöfHowever, bec
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82 F. Pedrosa Domellöfadhesions be
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84 F. Pedrosa Domellöfshown that (
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86 F. Pedrosa DomellöfReferencesAg
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88 F. Pedrosa DomellöfMori M, Kuwa
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Chapter 6Masticatory Muscle Structu
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6 Masticatory Muscle Structure and
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Page 199 and 200: 198 J.C. Stemple et al.of the preci
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216 A. Sokoloff and T. Burkholderbe
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218 A. Sokoloff and T. Burkholderel
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220 A. Sokoloff and T. BurkholderFi
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222 A. Sokoloff and T. BurkholderCo
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224 A. Sokoloff and T. BurkholderAn
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226 A. Sokoloff and T. BurkholderOl
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Chapter 13Tongue Biomechanics and M
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Fig. 13.1 Retrogradely labeled enti
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13 Tongue Biomechanics and Motor Co
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Chapter 14Tongue Muscle Responseto
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14 Tongue Muscle Response to Neurom
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Part VIIFacial Muscles
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266 A.O. Grobbelaar and A.C.S. Wool
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288 J. Park et al.Table 16.1 Disord
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290 J. Park et al.Table 16.2 Jankov
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292 J. Park et al.16.2.3 Pathophysi
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294 J. Park et al.evident eyelid sq
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296 J. Park et al.Focal motor seizu
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298 J. Park et al.Fig. 16.1 Content
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300 J. Park et al.Botox ® in human
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302 J. Park et al.Long-term effect
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304 J. Park et al.is as high as 50%
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306 J. Park et al.Table 16.4 Drugs
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308 J. Park et al.septum should be
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310 J. Park et al.16.9 Hemifacial S
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312 J. Park et al.16.9.5 TreatmentB
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314 J. Park et al.regeneration beca
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316 J. Park et al.Alderson K, Holds
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318 J. Park et al.Grandas F, Elston
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320 J. Park et al.McCord CD Jr (198
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Part VIIISummary and Conclusions
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326 L.K. McLoon and F.H. Andrade17.
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332 L.K. McLoon and F.H. AndradeDie
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334 L.K. McLoon and F.H. AndradeSam
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IndexAAbducens nucleusvs. lateral r
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Index339Embryonic myosin heavy chai
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IndexLLagophthalmos , 304, 308Lamin
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Indexmuscular dystrophy , 187-190my
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Index345hydrostat mass reduction ,
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