Craniofacial Muscles

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4 Motor Control of Extraocular Muscle65Fig. 4.8 Distribution ofA-group, B-group, andC-group cells of the medialrectus (MR) subdivision inthe oculomotor nucleus of themonkey. The S-group is theequivalent of the C-groupcells for the superior rectusand inferior obliquesubgroups. Adapted fromButtner-Ennever ( 2006 )Table 4.1 Patterns of innervation of EOM and their primary and secondary actionsMuscle Innervation Primary action Secondary actionMedial rectus (MR) Oculomotor (ipsi) Adduction –Lateral rectus (LR) Abducens (ipsi) Abduction –Superior rectus (SR) Oculomotor (contra) Elevation IntorsionInferior rectus (IR) Oculomotor (ipsi) Depression ExtorsionSuperior oblique (SO) Trochlear (contra) Intorsion DepressionInferior oblique (IO) Oculomotor (ipsi) Extorsion ElevationIn addition to the topographic organization of neurons according to the muscleinnervated, it is now recognized that there are at least three neuronal types withineach medial rectus subdivision, the so-called “A-group,” “B-group,” and “C-group”neurons. All our information about these motoneuronal groups has come from anatomicalstudies (Buttner-Ennever and Akert 1981 ; Spencer and Porter 1981 ) . Nostudies as of yet have identi fi ed unique physiological characteristics of the “A,” “B,”or “C-group” cells. However, the information available from anatomical studies ispotentially interesting. First, the location of the A, B, and C groups is distinct. Whilethe A- and B-group cells are located within the nucleus, the C-groups cells tend tocluster at the boundary of the nucleus (see Fig. 4.8 ). Even more interesting are thepatterns of afferent and efferent projections of these cells. While the A-group andB-group cells receive projections from pre-motor areas serving all types of eyemovements, the C-group cells do not receive afferent projections from saccadic orVOR pre-motor areas (Ugolini et al. 2006 ) . In addition, while the A- and B-groupcells project to the singly-innervated twitch fi bers within the mid belly of the EOM,the C-group cells innervate the multiply-innervated non-twitch fi bers at the distal
66 V.E. Dasend (Buttner-Ennever et al. 2001 ) . Such a differentiation in the pattern of afferentand efferent projections of the C-group cells has led to the suggestion that perhaps,the C-group → multiply-innervated non-twitch fi ber pathway could be preferentiallyinvolved in driving slow eye movements including gaze holding (Ugolini et al.2006 ) . However, an argument against this hypothesis is that fast myosins are foundthrough the length of the muscle and so it is unlikely that the so-called “slow” nontwitchfi bers contribute only to slow eye movements (McLoon et al. 2011 ) . Furtherinvestigation in the form of neurophysiological data is needed to understand whetherthe C-group is functionally distinct from A- and B-group cells.4.3.2.2 NeurophysiologyThe response characteristics of medial rectus motoneurons in the oculomotornucleus are similar to those in the abducens nucleus and do not require specializeddescription. They show a stereotypical burst-tonic response where the burst is proportionalto the eye velocity and the tonic level of activity is proportional to eyeposition in the orbit. Neurons in the left oculomotor nucleus project to the left eyemedial rectus muscle and drive rightward eye movements, and neurons in the rightoculomotor nucleus project to the right eye medial rectus and drive leftward eyemovements. Across the various studies, the average conjugate position sensitivity isapproximately 4 spks/s/deg, the average conjugate velocity sensitivity ranges0.5–1 spks/s/deg, and the constant term B is around 100 spks/s.In addition to the motoneurons that innervate EOM, the oculomotor nucleus alsocontains oculomotor internuclear neurons that mostly innervate the contralateralabducens nucleus (Langer et al. 1986 ) . The function of the oculomotor internuclearneurons is not clear. It was fi rst thought that the oculomotor internuclear neuronscould be the pathway that provided the abducens nucleus with a vergence signal buta neurophysiological study that identi fi ed the oculomotor internuclear neuronsusing antidromic activation methods did not fi nd any differences between theresponse characteristics of the oculomotor internuclear neurons and other medialrectus motoneurons in the oculomotor nucleus (Clendaniel and Mays 1994 ) .4.4 Motor Control of Cyclovertical Eye MovementsThe superior rectus, inferior rectus, superior oblique, and inferior oblique musclescontrol cyclovertical (vertical and torsional) eye movements. Neurons in the oculomotornucleus innervate the ipsilateral inferior rectus and inferior oblique musclesand the contralateral superior rectus muscle. Neurons in the trochlear nucleus innervatethe contralateral superior oblique muscle. Each rectus muscle has a primaryvertical and secondary torsional action, and each oblique muscle has a primary torsionaland secondary vertical action as shown in Table 4.1 . Unlike in the horizontalsystem, the secondary actions of the cyclovertical muscles are signi fi cant and vary
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Craniofacial Muscles
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EditorsLinda K. McLoonDepartment of
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viContents8 Masticatory Muscle Resp
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viiiContributorsMark Lewis School o
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Chapter 1The Craniofacial Muscles:
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1 The Craniofacial Muscles: Argumen
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1 The Craniofacial Muscles: Argumen
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Chapter 2Head Muscle DevelopmentIta
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Page 35 and 36: Part IIIExtraocular Muscles
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Page 57 and 58: 52 V.E. DasFig. 4.1 Initial studies
Page 59 and 60: 54 V.E. DasFig. 4.2 Schematic view
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Page 63 and 64: 58 V.E. Das4.3 Motor Control of Con
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Page 91 and 92: 86 F. Pedrosa DomellöfReferencesAg
Page 93 and 94: 88 F. Pedrosa DomellöfMori M, Kuwa
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Page 115 and 116: 112 B.J. Sessle et al.zygomaticus m
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118 B.J. Sessle et al.lie immediate
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120 B.J. Sessle et al.(Dubner et al
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122 B.J. Sessle et al.Fig. 7.3 An e
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124 B.J. Sessle et al.that each out
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126 B.J. Sessle et al.2010 ; Plowma
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128 B.J. Sessle et al.activities. S
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130 B.J. Sessle et al.Moayedi M, We
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132 S.L. Hebert et al.type 3 and cr
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134 S.L. Hebert et al.This early de
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136 S.L. Hebert et al.that EMG valu
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138 S.L. Hebert et al.Newton JP, Ab
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Chapter 9Structure and Function of
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9 Structure and Function of the Lar
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Chapter 10Motor Control and Biomech
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10 Motor Control and Biomechanics o
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186 J.C. Stemple et al.established
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188 J.C. Stemple et al.of protein d
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190 J.C. Stemple et al.the depictio
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192 J.C. Stemple et al.Fig. 11.2 Ul
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194 J.C. Stemple et al.11.6 Larynge
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196 J.C. Stemple et al.Neurapraxia,
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198 J.C. Stemple et al.of the preci
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200 J.C. Stemple et al.Gardner GM,
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202 J.C. Stemple et al.Rhee HS, Luc
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Part VITongue Musculature
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208 A. Sokoloff and T. BurkholderTh
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210 A. Sokoloff and T. BurkholderFi
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212 A. Sokoloff and T. Burkholder12
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214 A. Sokoloff and T. Burkholderou
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216 A. Sokoloff and T. Burkholderbe
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218 A. Sokoloff and T. Burkholderel
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220 A. Sokoloff and T. BurkholderFi
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222 A. Sokoloff and T. BurkholderCo
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224 A. Sokoloff and T. BurkholderAn
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226 A. Sokoloff and T. BurkholderOl
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Chapter 13Tongue Biomechanics and M
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Fig. 13.1 Retrogradely labeled enti
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13 Tongue Biomechanics and Motor Co
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Chapter 14Tongue Muscle Responseto
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14 Tongue Muscle Response to Neurom
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Part VIIFacial Muscles
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266 A.O. Grobbelaar and A.C.S. Wool
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288 J. Park et al.Table 16.1 Disord
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290 J. Park et al.Table 16.2 Jankov
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292 J. Park et al.16.2.3 Pathophysi
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294 J. Park et al.evident eyelid sq
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296 J. Park et al.Focal motor seizu
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298 J. Park et al.Fig. 16.1 Content
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300 J. Park et al.Botox ® in human
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302 J. Park et al.Long-term effect
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304 J. Park et al.is as high as 50%
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306 J. Park et al.Table 16.4 Drugs
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308 J. Park et al.septum should be
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310 J. Park et al.16.9 Hemifacial S
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312 J. Park et al.16.9.5 TreatmentB
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314 J. Park et al.regeneration beca
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316 J. Park et al.Alderson K, Holds
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318 J. Park et al.Grandas F, Elston
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320 J. Park et al.McCord CD Jr (198
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Part VIIISummary and Conclusions
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326 L.K. McLoon and F.H. Andrade17.
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332 L.K. McLoon and F.H. AndradeDie
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334 L.K. McLoon and F.H. AndradeSam
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IndexAAbducens nucleusvs. lateral r
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Index339Embryonic myosin heavy chai
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IndexLLagophthalmos , 304, 308Lamin
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Indexmuscular dystrophy , 187-190my
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Index345hydrostat mass reduction ,
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