Microbiology, 2021

640 15 • Microbial Mechanisms of Pathogenicity
Figure 15.17
(a) A micrograph of capsules around bacterial cells. (b) Antibodies normally function by binding to antigens, molecules on
the surface of pathogenic bacteria. Phagocytes then bind to the antibody, initiating phagocytosis. (c) Some bacteria also produce proteases,
virulence factors that break down host antibodies to evade phagocytosis. (credit a: modification of work by Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention)
Some bacteria produce virulence factors that promote infection by exploiting molecules naturally produced by
the host. For example, most strains of Staphylococcus aureus produce the exoenzyme coagulase, which
exploits the natural mechanism of blood clotting to evade the immune system. Normally, blood clotting is
triggered in response to blood vessel damage; platelets begin to plug the clot, and a cascade of reactions occurs
in which fibrinogen, a soluble protein made by the liver, is cleaved into fibrin. Fibrin is an insoluble, threadlike
protein that binds to blood platelets, cross-links, and contracts to form a mesh of clumped platelets and
red blood cells. The resulting clot prevents further loss of blood from the damaged blood vessels. However, if
bacteria release coagulase into the bloodstream, the fibrinogen-to-fibrin cascade is triggered in the absence of
blood vessel damage. The resulting clot coats the bacteria in fibrin, protecting the bacteria from exposure to
phagocytic immune cells circulating in the bloodstream.
Whereas coagulase causes blood to clot, kinases have the opposite effect by triggering the conversion of
plasminogen to plasmin, which is involved in the digestion of fibrin clots. By digesting a clot, kinases allow
pathogens trapped in the clot to escape and spread, similar to the way that collagenase, hyaluronidase, and
DNAse facilitate the spread of infection. Examples of kinases include staphylokinases and streptokinases,
produced by Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus pyogenes, respectively. It is intriguing that S. aureus
can produce both coagulase to promote clotting and staphylokinase to stimulate the digestion of clots. The
action of the coagulase provides an important protective barrier from the immune system, but when nutrient
supplies are diminished or other conditions signal a need for the pathogen to escape and spread, the
production of staphylokinase can initiate this process.
A final mechanism that pathogens can use to protect themselves against the immune system is called
antigenic variation, which is the alteration of surface proteins so that a pathogen is no longer recognized by
the host’s immune system. For example, the bacterium Borrelia burgdorferi, the causative agent of Lyme
disease, contains a surface lipoprotein known as VlsE. Because of genetic recombination during DNA
replication and repair, this bacterial protein undergoes antigenic variation. Each time fever occurs, the VlsE
protein in B. burgdorferi can differ so much that antibodies against previous VlsE sequences are not effective.
It is believed that this variation in the VlsE contributes to the ability B. burgdorferi to cause chronic disease.
Another important human bacterial pathogen that uses antigenic variation to avoid the immune system is
Neisseria gonorrhoeae, which causes the sexually transmitted disease gonorrhea. This bacterium is well
known for its ability to undergo antigenic variation of its type IV pili to avoid immune defenses.
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING
• Name at least two ways that a capsule provides protection from the immune system.
• Besides capsules, name two other virulence factors used by bacteria to evade the immune system.
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