Lead Toxicity in Mute Swans

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developed and (c) information on blood lead levels in other species is readily available. FRBCP is routinely used in screening for lead exposure in birds. Protoporphyrin IX is a precursor of haemoglobin, the concentration of which is known to increase in lead poisoning (Van Den Bergh, 1933; Lamola et al., 1975). Though there is a correlation between blood lead and FRBCP, these two parameters reflect different types of exposure. Blood lead gives an indication of exposure of up to 60 days in humans (Moore, 1986) and is estimated to be 20 days in birds (Anders et al., 1982). FRBCP gives a measure of metabolic damage caused by lead at erythropoiesis, thus any damage caused by lead at this stage can be assessed over the life span of the red blood cell. The life span of avian red blood cells is short (£.35-40 days) (Hodges, 1977) and not £.120 days as in humans (Dacie and Lewis, 1975; Eccleston, 1977). The level of blood lead and FRBCP reported in birds following lead exposure is very variable and much of the available data is from experimental studies on captive birds (see Lumeij, 1985). This raises, in particular, two questions about the methods for determining lead exposure in birds. Is the large variation in blood lead levels explained in any way by the variation in haemoglobin or haematocrit? And how representative are values obtained during dosing experiments to the field situation? Blood lead must be considered in the context of its distribution in the blood cells. In humans, 80% of lead is bound to haemoglobin in the erythrocytes (Ong and Lee, 1980) and this appears to be true also in birds (Anders et al., 1982). Blood lead values should therefore, be corrected for haematocrit or haemoglobin (Chamberlain, 1985; Landsdowne and Yule, J986). FRBCP is, to an even greater extent than lead, associated predominantly with erythrocytes,' therefore the whole blood - 15 - /
fluoresence intensity should strictly be corrected for haematocrit or haemoglobin values' (Chisolm et al., 1974; Chisolm, 1973). No investigations using corrected lead levels have been carried out in birds. This study examined variations in blood lead levels in Mute swans over time, for different sexes, ages and physiological states and examined the value of corrected blood lead. The use of FRBCP for screening lead poisoning in swans was also investigated. - 16 -
Page 2 and 3: 0004067t:.7 1~11111 /I llll II llll
Page 4 and 5: This thesis is dedicated to my moth
Page 6 and 7: ABSTRACT Lead toxicity in Mute swan
Page 8 and 9: - what are the best methods for the
Page 10 and 11: Benson, W.W., Brock, O.W., Gabrica,
Page 12 and 13: CHAPTER 1 DETERMINATION OF HAEMOGLO
Page 14 and 15: MATERIALS AND METHODS Blood was obt
Page 16 and 17: standards are now available, it is
Page 18 and 19: I ' ABSTRACT The use of blood lead
Page 22 and 23: MATERIALS AND METHODS Study sites.
Page 24 and 25: Swans were sexed by cloacal examina
Page 26 and 27: Red blood cell protoporphyrin .. Th
Page 28 and 29: RESULTS Blood Lead Levels Diel vari
Page 30 and 31: 16.00 24.CO 2.00 7.00 - ~ ~--1_ J l
Page 32 and 33: for corrected lead values (ug /g Rb
Page 34 and 35: Table 2. Blood lead levels of indiv
Page 36 and 37: 30 20 (A) n = 357 10 0-.99 1- 2- 3-
Page 38 and 39: Blood lead is very labile (Chamberl
Page 40 and 41: median value of lead in April is si
Page 43 and 44: elevated lead levels. (2) Haemoglob
Page 45 and 46: Chisolm, J.J. & Browne, D.R. (1975)
Page 47 and 48: Ohi, G., Seki, H., Akiyama, K. & Ya
Page 49 and 50: CHAPTER 3: SECTION 1 LEAD POISONING
Page 51 and 52: mammals' (Finley et al. 1976). This
Page 53 and 54: commute from areas up to 20km away
Page 55 and 56: TABLE 1: Causes of death in Irish s
Page 57 and 58: I 4. Coiled shot: malleable stainle
Page 59 and 60: CHAPTER 3: SECTION 2 LEAD POISONING
Page 61 and 62: I INTRODUCTION The importance of le
Page 63 and 64: 42,000 anglers visit the State each
Page 65 and 66: MATERIALS AND METHODS Study sites B
Page 67 and 68: 30KM f Fig.l Map of Ireland indicat
Page 69 and 70: lead. X-ray. They were subsequently
Page 71 and 72:
RESULTS Blood levels Blood lead lev
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I Table.II Proportion of lead poiso
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I of the gizzard and oesophagus and
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Table IV. 11 (of 41) X-rayed swans
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Table V. Median water lead levels (
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of pellets had occured. What is sig
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irds by Bellrose (1959) in the U.S.
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I the pellets as they moved in shor
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i Chamberlain, A.G. (1985). Predict
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Ong, C.N. & Lee, W.R. (1980). Inter
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SUMMARY Reference levels of some bi
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I adults, immatures, females and ma
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I centrifugation in microhaematocri
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RESULTS All blood samples included
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Table 1. Mean (± s.e.) maximum and
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Table 3. Haematological and biochem
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Table 5. Haemoglobin, haematocrit a
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Table 6. Age, sex, blood lead level
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DISCUSSION The normal range of haem
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considered when using protoporphyri
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I the blood constituents, reflectin
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REFERENCES Bates, F.Y., Barnes, D.M
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i Lucas, A.M. and Jamroz, C. (1961)
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CHAPTER 5 TISSUE LEAD LEVELS AND HA
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INTRODUCTION Lead poisoning through
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I r MATERIALS AND METHODS Collectio
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I RESULTS Tissue lead levels Tissue
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Table 1. Tissue lead levels (ug/ g)
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Table 3 Age, sex, blood lead level
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DISCUSSION Tissue lead levels have
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which had collided had raised blood
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REFERENCES Anders, E., Dietz, D.D.,
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O'Halloran, J., Myers, A.A. and Dug
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many others for helping to catch sw
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APPENDIX 1 LEAD LEVELS IN MUTE SWAN
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intense fishing in summer and large
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area of 4m 2 , were taken. The samp
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levels of the birds on the Lee also
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i oesophagus, proventriculus and gi
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in blood. In general, healthy birds
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toxic lea? l~vels. The post-mortem
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London area. Part 2 Biological Effe
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Prelin1inary results of ringing Mut
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Ringed Mute S1rans ?f the. 61 I r~~
Page 159:
Acknowledgments Ringed Mute S1ra11s
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Lead Toxicity in Mute Swans

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