Lead Toxicity in Mute Swans

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- what are the best methods for the assessment of lead exposure? - what are the sources of lead contamination in swans in Ireland? - what are the normal haematological and biochemical values for Mute swan? - does lead cause any identifiable sub-lethal effects? The present study set out to attempt to answer these questions. There are two main methods for the assessment of lead exposure; (1) blood lead estimation and (2) measurement of free red blood cell protoporphyrin. Birkhead (1983) was one of the few workers to employ in 'the field' assessment. The need to correct blood lead levels and protoporphyrin IX for haemoglobin has been recognised for decades, (see Chisolm, 1973), but many workers have ignored it's importance in birds probably due to the inaccuracy of techniques for estimating haemoglobin. Problems in estimating haemoglobin in birds have arisen from the fact that most workers have directly applied mammalian techniques. Chapter one adopts a recently developed technique for estimating haemoglobin in humans (Zander et al., 1984) which, unlike previous methods, also gives accurate and reproducible results in birds. Chapter two outlines variations in blood lead levels during the diel cycle in captive birds and over a two year period from uniquely ringed swans in the field. The use of protoporphyrin IX in assessing the level of lead exposure is also discussed. Chapter three examines the role of angling and shooting in causing elevated lead in swans. The contribution of general environmental lead is also discussed. Lead is known to be a potent toxicant of the haemopoietic system, - 3 -
inhibiting the synthesis of haemoglobin and causing raised protoporphyrin IX values (Lee, 1981). However, in common with other studies on toxic metals, understanding the effects of lead depends on a thorough knowledge of the swans' normal physiology and biochemistry. Some workers, for example Simpson et al., (1979), have reported haemoglobin values for Mute swans and Janssen et al., (1986) have examined blood chemistry in California condors [Gymnogyps californicus (Shaw)] suffering from lead poisoning. In general, however, few reference values for blood parameters in birds are available. Such knowledge of 'normal' haematological, biochemical and physiological values and function is necessary if we wish to make an attempt to assess the importance of an effect of a toxic metal such as lead on Mute swans. Thus, environmental and/or ecological assessments cannot be made without a good knowledge of biochemical and physiological factors. Chapter four reports haematological and biochemical reference values for Mute swans and compares these values with those of six swans that died from acute lead poisoning. Chapter five reports on tissue and blood lead levels of Mute swans that were involved in collisions. The possible role of elevated lead in causing these collisions is investigated. REFERENCES Anders, E., Diet, D.D., Bagnell, C.R., Gaynor, J., Krigman, M.R., Ross, D.W., Leander, J.D. and Mushak, D. (1982). Morphological, pharmocokinetic and hematological studies of lead exposed pigeons. Environmental Research. 28: 344-363. - 4 -
Page 2 and 3: 0004067t:.7 1~11111 /I llll II llll
Page 4 and 5: This thesis is dedicated to my moth
Page 6 and 7: ABSTRACT Lead toxicity in Mute swan
Page 10 and 11: Benson, W.W., Brock, O.W., Gabrica,
Page 12 and 13: CHAPTER 1 DETERMINATION OF HAEMOGLO
Page 14 and 15: MATERIALS AND METHODS Blood was obt
Page 16 and 17: standards are now available, it is
Page 18 and 19: I ' ABSTRACT The use of blood lead
Page 20 and 21: developed and (c) information on bl
Page 22 and 23: MATERIALS AND METHODS Study sites.
Page 24 and 25: Swans were sexed by cloacal examina
Page 26 and 27: Red blood cell protoporphyrin .. Th
Page 28 and 29: RESULTS Blood Lead Levels Diel vari
Page 30 and 31: 16.00 24.CO 2.00 7.00 - ~ ~--1_ J l
Page 32 and 33: for corrected lead values (ug /g Rb
Page 34 and 35: Table 2. Blood lead levels of indiv
Page 36 and 37: 30 20 (A) n = 357 10 0-.99 1- 2- 3-
Page 38 and 39: Blood lead is very labile (Chamberl
Page 40 and 41: median value of lead in April is si
Page 43 and 44: elevated lead levels. (2) Haemoglob
Page 45 and 46: Chisolm, J.J. & Browne, D.R. (1975)
Page 47 and 48: Ohi, G., Seki, H., Akiyama, K. & Ya
Page 49 and 50: CHAPTER 3: SECTION 1 LEAD POISONING
Page 51 and 52: mammals' (Finley et al. 1976). This
Page 53 and 54: commute from areas up to 20km away
Page 55 and 56: TABLE 1: Causes of death in Irish s
Page 57 and 58: I 4. Coiled shot: malleable stainle
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CHAPTER 3: SECTION 2 LEAD POISONING
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I INTRODUCTION The importance of le
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42,000 anglers visit the State each
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MATERIALS AND METHODS Study sites B
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30KM f Fig.l Map of Ireland indicat
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lead. X-ray. They were subsequently
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RESULTS Blood levels Blood lead lev
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I Table.II Proportion of lead poiso
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I of the gizzard and oesophagus and
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Table IV. 11 (of 41) X-rayed swans
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Table V. Median water lead levels (
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of pellets had occured. What is sig
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irds by Bellrose (1959) in the U.S.
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I the pellets as they moved in shor
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i Chamberlain, A.G. (1985). Predict
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Ong, C.N. & Lee, W.R. (1980). Inter
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SUMMARY Reference levels of some bi
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I adults, immatures, females and ma
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I centrifugation in microhaematocri
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RESULTS All blood samples included
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Table 1. Mean (± s.e.) maximum and
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Table 3. Haematological and biochem
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Table 5. Haemoglobin, haematocrit a
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Table 6. Age, sex, blood lead level
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DISCUSSION The normal range of haem
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considered when using protoporphyri
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I the blood constituents, reflectin
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REFERENCES Bates, F.Y., Barnes, D.M
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i Lucas, A.M. and Jamroz, C. (1961)
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CHAPTER 5 TISSUE LEAD LEVELS AND HA
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INTRODUCTION Lead poisoning through
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I r MATERIALS AND METHODS Collectio
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I RESULTS Tissue lead levels Tissue
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Table 1. Tissue lead levels (ug/ g)
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Table 3 Age, sex, blood lead level
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DISCUSSION Tissue lead levels have
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which had collided had raised blood
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REFERENCES Anders, E., Dietz, D.D.,
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O'Halloran, J., Myers, A.A. and Dug
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many others for helping to catch sw
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APPENDIX 1 LEAD LEVELS IN MUTE SWAN
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intense fishing in summer and large
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area of 4m 2 , were taken. The samp
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levels of the birds on the Lee also
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i oesophagus, proventriculus and gi
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in blood. In general, healthy birds
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toxic lea? l~vels. The post-mortem
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London area. Part 2 Biological Effe
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Prelin1inary results of ringing Mut
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Ringed Mute S1rans ?f the. 61 I r~~
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Acknowledgments Ringed Mute S1ra11s
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Lead Toxicity in Mute Swans

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