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statesmen (Genro), an oligarchy. These men comprised the most powerful men of the military, political, and
economic spheres, and they were determined to reform Japan, which was to become an industrial nation
so Japan could advance economically, socially, and militarily. The military was modernized; conscription
was introduced, and a new army modeled after the Prussian force, and a navy after the British one were
established. Numerous Western institutions were adopted, including a Western legal system and a quasiparliamentary
constitutional government, outlined in the Meiji Constitution. The reformers wanted to make
Japan a democratic state with equality for all; thus, the social classes of the Tokugawa era were reformed,
which meant that the samurai class lost its privileges. These reforms also included the establishment of
human rights such as religious freedom in 1873. The education system was also reformed using Western
educational models; education became compulsory.
To transform the agrarian economy of Tokugawa Japan into a developed industrial nation required
Western knowledge. So Japanese scholars were sent abroad to study science and languages, while foreign
experts taught in Japan. The transportation and communication networks were improved by means of large
government investments. The government also supported business and industries.
Between August 1, 1894 and April 17, 1895, the First Sino Japanese War, the fi rst “Glorious War,” was
fought between the Chinese Qing Dynasty and Japanese Meiji, over control of Korea. The Qing Dynasty,
weakened by the Opium Wars of the 19th century, was ill-prepared for the war. Japan strengthened by the
reforms of the Meiji Restoration prevailed, and the Qing Dynasty sued for peace. Dominance in East Asia
shifted to Japan. The Qing Dynasty never recovered from this loss, which led to the end of the Qing Dynasty
and the emergence of the Republic in1912.
Another “Glorious War” was fought in 1904-1905, when the Japanese fought the Russians over their
rival claims for territory in Manchuria and Korea. Despite its fl edgling army and navy, Japan was victorious,
reinforcing its position as a leader in East Asia. Russia’s embarrassing loss was one of the causes of the
Russian Revolution of 1905. During this war, Japan was concerned for the well-being of the Russian POWs
even after having been called “the yellow monkeys” by the Russians.
After several decades of westernization, a revival of conservative and nationalistic feelings occurred:
principles of Confucianism and Shintoism, including the worship of the emperor, were increasingly emphasized
and taught at educational institutions. Victories against Korea, China, and Russia caused nationalism to increase
even more
In 1912 Emperor Meiji died, and the era of the rule of Genro ended.
Militarism and WWII (1912 - 1945)
During the era of the weak emperor Taisho (1912-26), the political power shifted from the Genro to the
parliament and the democratic parties.
In World War I, Japan had joined the Allies, but played only a minor role in fi ghting German colonial
forces, for example, Japan lost only 500 troops. At the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, Japan’s proposal of
amending a “racial equality clause” to the covenant of the League of Nations was rejected by the United States,
Britain, and Australia. Racial discrimination towards the Japanese had plagued Japanese-Western relations since
the forced opening of the country in the 1800s, and these were again a major factor in the deterioration of
relations in the decades preceding World War II. In 1924, for example, the US Congress passed the Exclusion
Act that prohibited further immigration from Japan.
After WW1, Japan’s economical situation worsened. The Great Kanto Earthquake of 1923 and the world
wide depression of 1929 intensifi ed the crisis.
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