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you are told.” (Browne) Moreover, youth were indoctrinated about the superiority of the Japanese culture as shido minzoku, “the world’s foremost people,” and the inferiority of the “lower races,” such as the Chinese. The darker one’s skin, the lower the status. The Military in Power (1930s) During the 1930s, Japan took a new direction. The military became a dominant force in the government. The government was led by these ultra nationalistic and militaristic groups of hawks with imperial ambitions. Dissenters were assassinated or persecuted. Indoctrination and censorship in education and media were further intensifi ed. Navy and army offi cers soon occupied most of the important offi ces, including the one of the prime minister. Because Japan was over-populated and had few natural resources and were thus dependent on international trade, the military government looked to China, especially to Manchuria, which was rich in coal, iron, and aluminum. Japan also wanted to exploit them as a cheap labor force. Manchuria would also be the perfect launching area for further expansion, for example to the Soviet border lands. Other Asian countries were also of interest for what Japan needed—raw materials such as oil and land. Japan’s goal was similar to Hitler’s goal of territorial expansion. General Hideki Tōjō, a supporter of Nazi Germany, was one who held extreme right-wing views. He feared the long-term plans of Joseph Stalin, and in 1938 he advocated pre-emptive air strikes on both China and the Soviet Union. In July 1941, Tōjō was appointed by Prime Minister Fumimaro Konoye as Minister of War. Tōjō advocated an aggressive foreign policy and strongly opposed plans by Shigenori Togo, a diplomat, to remove Japanese troops from China and Korea. Tōjō ordered the attack on Pearl Harbor. In Manchuria and China, Japan had already been the aggressor. To acquire more land, Japan had forced China into unequal economical and political treaties. Furthermore, Japan’s infl uence over Manchuria had been growing since the end of the Russo-Japanese war of 1904-05. When the Chinese Nationalists (KMT) began to seriously challenge Japan’s position in Manchuria in 1931, the Japanese Imperial Army occupied Manchuria. In the following year, Manchuria was renamed “Manchukuo” and declared an independent state, controlled by Japan through a puppet government, headed by Pu Yi, the deposed Chinese emperor. In 1932, in the January 28th Incident, the Japanese bombarded Shanghai in order to protect Japanese residents from supposed anti-Japanese demonstrations; this “incident” lasted until May 5 when the humiliating Shanghai Ceasefi re Agreement was signed, Chinese forces were removed from Shanghai and its environs but the Japanese were allowed a few army units in Shanghai. In 1933, because Japan was criticized for her actions in China, Japan withdrew from the League of Nations. Second Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945) In July 1937, the Second Sino-Japanese War broke out, following the incident at the Marco Polo Bridge. The Japanese forces moved southeast, attacking Shanghai in August through November 1937, and then marched further into China, and in December of 1937 attacked and occupied Nanking, the capital of Nationalist China, where the atrocities committed are known as the Nanking Massacre or the Rape of Nanking. The Japanese attacked other cities along the east coast of China and also in the southwest. In addition, to the battles in these areas, the Japanese conducted biological warfare throughout China. However, the Chinese government never surrendered, and the war with the Japanese continued until 1945. Pre-WWII Japanese Aggression in the Pacifi c In 1940, Japan continued its aggression in the Pacifi c, occupying French Indochina (Vietnam) and joining the Axis nations, Germany and Italy. As a result of these actions the United States and Great Britain reacted with an oil boycott. With the resulting oil shortage and failures to solve the confl ict diplomatically, Japan decided to capture the oil rich Dutch East Indies (Indonesia) and to start a war with the U.S. and Great Britain. 59
WWII in the Pacifi c (1941-1945) In December 1941, Japan attacked the Allied powers at Pearl Harbor and several other points throughout the Pacifi c. Within months, Japan expanded her control to the border of India in the West and New Guinea in the South. The turning point in the Pacifi c War was the battle of Midway in June 1942. From then on, the Allied forces slowly won back the territories occupied by Japan. In 1944, intensive air raids started over Japan. In spring 1945, U.S. forces invaded Okinawa in one of the war’s bloodiest battles. On July 27, 1945, in the Potsdam Declaration, the Allies requested Japan to surrender unconditionally, or destruction would continue. Even after U.S. military forces dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki on August 6 and 9, and the Soviet Union entered the war against Japan on August 8, the military would not surrender unconditionally. On August 14, however, Emperor Hirohito (Showa) fi nally agreed to the surrender terms. After fourteen long and devastating years, WWII was over for China and the Allies. Sources: Internet Modern History Source Book: http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/japan/japanworkbook/modernhist/outline.html Japan Guide/History: http://www.japan-guide.com/ 60
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Each of us has cause to think with
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Preface The publication of the seco
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ESSENTIAL QUESTIONS THAT WILL FOCUS
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Unit 4—Suggested Bibliography Aud
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Unit Five Military Sex Slaves Recru
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Although military prostitution has
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ESSENTIAL QUESTIONS THAT WILL FOCUS
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SUGGESTED SEQUENCE OF LEARNING ACTI
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Unit 5—Handout 2 Survivor Testimo
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Unit 5—Handout 4 Discussion Quest
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Unit 5—Handout 6 Japanese Governm
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Unit Six Biological and Chemical We
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These CBW camps and research labora
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ESSENTIAL QUESTION THAT WILL FOCUS
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Unit 6—Handout 1 Research Project
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Unit 6—Handout 2-1 Germ Warfare T
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Survivor of Bubonic Plague, Jiang L
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Students were compelled to bow towa
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Questions for Discussion 1. What is
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"Regarding the issue of biological
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Japanese, Chinese, perhaps victims
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DVDs History—Unit 731: Nightmare
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ESSENTIALS QUESTION THAT WILL FOCUS
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Unit 7—Handout 5 Questions for Di
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Sides, Hampton. Ghost Soldiers: The
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ESSENTIAL QUESTION THAT WILL FOCUS
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Unit 8—Handout 1 Defi nitions Def
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Unit 8—Handout 3 Universe of Obli
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This demilitarized zone for Chinese
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Unit 8—Handout 6 Members of the I
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Selected Rescuer Profi les A Letter
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George Ashmore Fitch (1883-1979) Ge
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Unit 8—Handout 7 Chinese Rescue W
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Jing Zhe-qiao, Xu Kai-ji (Director,
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Dr. Chang (Doctor, Nanjing Drum Tow
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I’ll close today’s entry with t
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Unit 8—Handout 9-1 John Rabe (188
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anyone who tried to defend themselv
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Unit 8—Handout 9-2 Tsen Shuifang
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gate while the refugees poured in.
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Unit 8—Handout 9-4 Honda Introduc
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Unit 8—Handout 10 Exercise and Qu
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Unit Nine The Tokyo War Crimes Tria
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Unit 9—Handout 2 Making a Differe
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dedicated to religion, art, science
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Non-Applicability of Statutory Limi
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Prosecution Team: This group needs
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Unit 9—Handout 6 International Ag
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A No War Resolution that expressed
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Unit Ten Japanese Denial and Intern
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Denial of the Nanking Massacre •
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Unit 10—Handout 2-1 Activism Acti
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Unit 10—Handout 5-1 Japanese Deni
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March. It is amazing to me that the
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Russo-Japanese War, such as the pro
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Endnotes to portion of article incl
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Why is Redress Important? • Becau
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For the Chinese witnesses at the tr
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Japan’s “masochistic education
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Yoshida: I didn’t mention this in
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1945 The fi rst atomic bomb is drop
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January, 1938 The world learns of t
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Reading Standards 9-12 1. Cite stro
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