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of achieving a more seamless interaction between humans and machines. So how much progress has been made in this area of study? Researchers are beginning to shed light on the effects of perceptual grouping on attention and navigation in interface environments (Addy, 2000; Bennet, Nagy & Flach, 1996; Card, 1982; Niemela & Saarien, 2000; Proctor & Proctor, 1996; Tullus 1981; Tullis, 1984; Tullus, 1986; Wickens & Carswell, 1996). However, recent discoveries in vision science suggest that perceptual grouping can be moderated by exposure time (Kurylo, 1997; Schulz, 2001; Schulz, 2002; Schulz, Peterson, Sanocki & Sellers, 2001; Schulz & Sanocki, 2003). These findings have not been considered within the context of user interface design, but are of great interest because exposure time to user interface is often limited by task demands. In light of recent findings and due to time limits set by task demands, it is essential to consider the effect of exposure time on perceptual grouping in user interface design. This review serves to highlight recent discoveries in perceptual grouping and to describe how these findings can be applied to user interface design. First, a discussion about how humans organize the complex visual stimulus will be presented with specific emphasis on Gestalt grouping. Second, Gestalt grouping in user interface will be detailed. Third, time limits set by task demands in user interface will be described. Fourth, recent discoveries in perceptual organization will be highlighted. Finally, in light of this review, a new line of research will be discussed that has tested the potential application of recent discoveries in Gestalt grouping to user interface design. Specifically, a series of experiments that tested global and local pushbutton grouping by time in user interface 6
displays are reported. Global and local grouping are compared in the present study because researchers have found that global scene properties can be perceived before local scene properties across time (Navon, 1981, Sanocki, 1993). Theorists have defined global scene properties as being the largest size scale shapes of objects and perceptual scenes (Sanocki, 2001; Navon, 1977; Navon, 1981) whereas local scene properties have been defined as being more internal, interior and generally smaller scale shapes in perceptual scenes (Sanocki, 1993). In the present study, global grouping was defined as grouping as being relatively large in size scale when compared to local grouping. Here, the difference between global and local grouping was defined quantitatively. Organizing the complex visual stimulus Human vision involves much more than simply opening our apertures and visually perceiving the world. The 2-dimensional image that is cast onto the retina of the eye requires a certain amount of processing to generate the rich 3-dimensional world that we perceive (e.g., Goldstein, 1999). This processing is essential because human visual perception is not as automatic and effortless as it may at first seem. The retinal receptors of the human eye detect local pieces of spatial scenes. These individual local pieces, that together compose the 2-dimensional image stimulus, are ambiguous when considered independently due to scene attributes like shadows, real edges, and colors. In a more general sense, image formation can be thought of as a many-to-one mapping (e.g., Nalwa, 1993). Given any retinal image feature, there are a variety of distal spatial scenes that could have produced it. Yet despite these factors, humans rapidly generate global 7
Page 1 and 2: Time Course of Perceptual Grouping
Page 3 and 4: Experiment 1 76 Method 76 Results a
Page 5 and 6: List of Figures Figure 1. Illustrat
Page 11 and 12: will look like and how it will comm
Page 13: visibility of important interface e
Page 17 and 18: Electrical activity generated by th
Page 19 and 20: would not be. It would be easier to
Page 21 and 22: could be grouped by the principles
Page 23 and 24: Figure 4. Gestalt principles of gro
Page 25 and 26: One of the leaders in grouping and
Page 27 and 28: defined by similar numbers. For exa
Page 29 and 30: and Saasrinen (2000) observed that
Page 31 and 32: proximity (Bailey, 1989; Bonney & W
Page 33 and 34: find the target ‘Picture’ in th
Page 35 and 36: Humans integrate many types of info
Page 37 and 38: measures. As a result, the pilot wo
Page 39 and 40: Figure 10. Pop-up advertisement wit
Page 41 and 42: soldiers see in these speeded condi
Page 43 and 44: 2001), grouping by proximity and al
Page 45 and 46: local letters, as illustrated by Fi
Page 47 and 48: frequency channels at specific rang
Page 49 and 50: Recent support for the Flexible Usa
Page 51 and 52: occluded shape as being incomplete
Page 53 and 54: search for the target in the experi
Page 55 and 56: Gestalt principle of good continuat
Page 57 and 58: columns of circles on the opposing
Page 59 and 60: short stimulus durations can be use
Page 61 and 62: Figure 15. Results for ambiguous pr
Page 63 and 64: As shown in Figure 16B, for the lig
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In review these findings, it become
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in user interface display layouts.
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were asked to make decisions about
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columns of pushbuttons on either si
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principles that are depicted more g
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no longer perceived. These cases wi
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influence what ‘goes together’
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participants, randomly with replace
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Figure 23. Targets used in reported
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participants that were more than th
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that was presented in the pilot exp
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from three participants because one
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see, each of the four distributions
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The distribution of data from each
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Figure 28. Targets for Experiment 2
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Results and discussion Sixteen fema
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global grouping was significantly f
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Figure 32A depicts a box plot for g
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means, the Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Te
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to group by the alternative scale.
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Table 4. Characteristics of RT dist
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General Discussion Research that ha
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Experiments 2A and 2B were designed
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the size scale within an existing i
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“Hotmail” has been reported to
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They are interesting within the con
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forms of similarity could also be t
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the context of vision science resea
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Bennett, K. B., Nagy, A. L., and Fl
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De Valois, R. L. & De Valois, K. K.
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Johnston, W.A., Schwarting, I.S. &
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Nass, C., Isbister, K., & Lee, E.J.
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Palmer, S. E. & Rock, I. (1994). Re
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Sanocki, T.(2001). Interaction of s
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Tullis, T. S. (1981). An evaluation
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About the Author Melissa F. Schulz
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