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ARAB ENVIRONMENT: CLIMATE CHANGE 111 outbreak which in turn may be due to the pest species, the amount <strong>of</strong> genetic variation and adaptability to current weather conditions in the pest population, predation levels for example by birds on the insects, and whether or not insecticides have been applied. Countries in the Arab region must design and implement specific and tailored projects for mitigating and adapting to climate change. In the past, species survived previous climate change events as they were able to track their habitats though space. Unfortunately, today this is becoming extremely and increasingly difficult as humans have transformed or fragmented the natural world. As such the inhabitants <strong>of</strong> the Arab world should deploy significant and immediate efforts in order to provide species with the possibility to shift their habitats and adapt to climate change (Jansson and Dynesius, 2002). In terms <strong>of</strong> protected areas management, there are two main strategies that should be applied in a parallel and complimentary manner in order to ensure maximum conservation coverage and efficiency. The first strategy is to add new protected areas to maintain species’ representation targets and the second strategy refers to the management <strong>of</strong> species within protected areas in reference to and in coordination with other protected areas (and not simply to maintain the site’s status quo) (Hannah et al., 2002). In the Arab world, it would be <strong>of</strong> significant importance to adopt and apply three main axes in protected areas planning, including the expansion <strong>of</strong> protected areas, managing outside the protected area and regional coordination <strong>of</strong> management actions (Hannah et al., 2002). Last but not least, the Arab region as an interlinked geographical entity should develop and implement regional mechanisms for coordinating activities in this field. Species range-shifts, impacts <strong>of</strong> extreme events and resources asynchronies <strong>of</strong>ten occur on regional scales so an effective climate change strategy must include mechanisms for coordinating conservation actions at the regional level across political boundaries and agency jurisdiction (Hannah et al., 2002). In order to tackle a global phenomenon with impacts on many levels and scales, regional coordination is a necessary element for effective and sustainable results. REFERENCES Al-Eisawi, D.M. Report on ecosystems and biodiversity. Unpublished. Al-Eisawi, D.M. (2008). ’Restoration and Saving Biodiversity in Desert <strong>Climate</strong>’. 2nd World Scientific Congress, Challenges in Botanical Research and <strong>Climate</strong> <strong>Change</strong>. 29 June-4 July 2008. Delft, The Netherlands. Al-Eisawi, D.M. (2004). ‘Flora and Vegetation <strong>of</strong> Hawar Islands, Kingdom <strong>of</strong> Bahrain’. Arabian Gulf University. Manama, Kingdom <strong>of</strong> Bahrain. Arab Forum for Environment and Development – AFED (2008). Arab Environment, Future Challenges. AFED Annual Report 2008. N. Saab and M.K. Tolba (Eds.). Beirut, Lebanon: Technical Publications. Bakkenes, M. ,J.R.M Alkemade, F. Ihle, R. Leemans, and J.B. Latour (2002). Assessing effects <strong>of</strong> forecasted climate change on the diversity and distribution <strong>of</strong> European higher plants for 2050. Global <strong>Change</strong> biology. 8: 390-407. Biomes and Ecosystems (2008). Windows to the Universe at the University Corporation for Atmospheric Research (UCAR). ©1995-1999, 2000 The Regents <strong>of</strong> the University <strong>of</strong> Michigan; ©2000-05 University Corporation for Atmospheric Research. At: http://www.windows.ucar.edu/tour/link=/earth/Life/im ages/biomes_lg_jpg_image.html Convention on Biological Diversity – CBD (2007). Biodiversity and <strong>Climate</strong> <strong>Change</strong> Biodiversity and <strong>Climate</strong> <strong>Change</strong>-International Day for Biological Diversity. Convention on Biological Diversity – CBD. National Reports. At: http://www.cbd.int/reports/ Currie, D.J. 2001. ‘Projected effects <strong>of</strong> climate change on patterns <strong>of</strong> vertebrate and tree species richness in the conterminous United States’. Ecosystems. 4: 216-225. Eclcy, H. A. C., M. J. Lawes, and S. E. Piper (1999). ‘The influence <strong>of</strong> climate change on the distribution <strong>of</strong> indigenous forest in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa’. Journal <strong>of</strong> Biogeography. 26: 595-617. Environmental Sustainability Index – ESI (2005). Benchmarking National Environmental Stewardship. Yale Center for Environmental Law and Policy. Yale University Center for International Earth Science Information Network Columbia University. Hannah I., G.F. Midgley and D. Millar (2002). ‘<strong>Climate</strong> change-integrated conservation strategies’. Global Ecology and Biogeography. 11: 485-495. Hickling, R. D. B. Roy, J.K. Hill, R. Fox, and C.D. Thomas (2006). ‘The distributions <strong>of</strong> a wide range <strong>of</strong> taxonomic groups are expanding polewards.’ Global <strong>Change</strong> Biology. 12: 450-455.
112 CHAPTER 8 ECOSYSTEMS AND BIODIVERSITY Intergovernmental Panel on <strong>Climate</strong> <strong>Change</strong> – IPCC (2007). <strong>Climate</strong> <strong>Change</strong> 2007: <strong>Impact</strong>s, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution <strong>of</strong> Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report <strong>of</strong> the Intergovernmental Panel on <strong>Climate</strong> <strong>Change</strong> [M.L. Parry, O.F. Canziani, J.P. Palutik<strong>of</strong>, P.J. van der Linden and C.E. Hanson (Eds.)], Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA. International Union for Conservation <strong>of</strong> Nature and Natural Resources – IUCN (2008). At: http://www.iucnredlist.org/static/stats Jansson, R and M Dynesius (2002). ‘The Fate <strong>of</strong> Clades in a World <strong>of</strong> Recurrent <strong>Climate</strong> <strong>Change</strong>: Milankovitch Oscillations and Evolution.’ Annual Review <strong>of</strong> Ecology and Systematics, 33:741-777. Kapos V., Ravilious C., Campbell A., Dickson B., Gibbs H.K., Hansen M.C., Lysenko I., Miles L., Price J., Scharlemann J.P.W., Trumper K.C. (2008). Carbon and Biodiversity: a Demonstration Atlas. UNEP-WCMC, Cambridge, UK. League <strong>of</strong> Arab States, ‘Background paper on Arab Region State <strong>of</strong> Implementation on <strong>Climate</strong> <strong>Change</strong>’. Technical Secretariat Council <strong>of</strong> Arab Ministers Responsible for the Environment. Mackay, R. (Ed.) The Atlas <strong>of</strong> Endangered Species (2005). Earthscane. Myriad Editions Limited. Miles, L. A. Grainger, and O. Phillips (2004). ‘The impact <strong>of</strong> global climate change on tropical forest biodiversity in Amazonia.’ Global ecology and biogeography. 13: 553-565 National Environmental Satellite Data and Information service (NOAA/NESDIS) (2009). At: http://www.osdpd.noaa.gov/PSB/EPS/climo&hot.html Leary, N. and Kulkarni, J. (2007). <strong>Climate</strong> <strong>Change</strong> Vulnerability and Adaptation in Developing Country Regions. Draft Final Report <strong>of</strong> the AIACC Project A Global Environment Facility Enabling Activity in the <strong>Climate</strong> <strong>Change</strong> Focal Area. Implementing Agency: United Nations Environment Programme, Nairobi, Kenya Olmos, S. (2001). Vulnerability and Adaptation to <strong>Climate</strong> <strong>Change</strong>: Concepts, Issues, Assessment Methods. Prepared for the <strong>Climate</strong> <strong>Change</strong> Knowledge Network. Pearson, RG and T.P Dawson (2003). ‘Predicting the impact <strong>of</strong> climate change on the distribution <strong>of</strong> species: are bioclimate envelope models useful’ Global Ecology and Biogeography, 12: 361-371. Perrino, P (1998). ‘The diversity in VavHx)v's Mediterranean Gene Center.’ Kulturpllanz, 36: 85-105 Rivedi, M.R., P.M.Berry, M.D.Morecr<strong>of</strong>t, and T.P.Dawson (2008). ‘Spatial scale affects bioclimate model projections <strong>of</strong> climate change impacts on mountain plants.’ Global change biology. 14: 1-15. Saxon, E., B. Baker, W. Hargrove, F. H<strong>of</strong>fman, and C. Zganjar (2005). ‘Mapping environments at risk under different global climate change scenarios.’ Ecology letters. 8: 53-60. Secretariat <strong>of</strong> the Convention on Biological Diversity (2003). Interlinkages between biological diversity and climate change. Advice on the integration <strong>of</strong> biodiversity considerations into the implementation <strong>of</strong> the United Nations Framework Convention on <strong>Climate</strong> <strong>Change</strong> and its Kyoto protocol.Montreal, SCBD, 154p. (CBD Technical Series no. 10). Smith, E. A. and M. Wishnie (2000). ‘Conservation and subsistence in small-scale societies.’ Annual Review <strong>of</strong> Anthropology. 29: 493-524. Socioeconomic data and applications centre (SEDAC) Map client. At: http://sedac.ciesin.columbia.edu/mapviewer/index.jsp Srivastava, D. S. and M. Vellend (2005). ‘Biodiversity – ecosystem function research: is it relevant to conservation’ Annual Review <strong>of</strong> Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics. 36: 267-94. The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands. At: http://www.ramsar.org/index_key_docs.htm Thuiller, W. O. Broennimann, G. Hughes, J. R. M. Alkemade, G. F. Midgley, and F. Corsi (2006). ‘Vulnerability <strong>of</strong> African mammals to anthropogenic climate change under conservative land transformation assumptions.’ Global change biology. 12: 424- 440 Thuiller, W. S. Lavorel, and M. B. Araujo (2005b). ‘Niche properties and geographical extent as predictors <strong>of</strong> species sensitivity to climate change.’ Global ecology and Biogeography. 14: 347-357. Thuiller, W., S. Lavorel, M. B. Araujo, M.T. Sykes, and I.C.Prentice (2005a). ‘<strong>Climate</strong> change threats to plant diversity in Europe.’ PNAS. 102 (23):8245-8250. United Nations Environment Programme – UNEP (2009). Environment Outlook for the Arab Region. The First Comprehensive Policy-Relevant Environmental Assessment Report for the Arab Region. United Nations Environment Programme -World Conservation Monitoring Centre (2005 a). Protected Areas 2005. United Nations Environment Programme-World Conservation Monitoring Centre, Ramsar Convention Bureau, United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, World Conservation Union (2005 b). Biodiversity 2005 United Nations Framework Convention on <strong>Climate</strong> <strong>Change</strong> –UNFCCC (2006). Background paper on impacts, vulnerability and adaptation to climate change in Africa for the African workshop on adaptation implementation <strong>of</strong> decision 1/CP.10 <strong>of</strong> the UNFC- CC Convention Accra, Ghana, 21 - 23 September, 2006. Vallianatos, E. G. (2006). ‘Humanity’s ecological footprint.’ Mediterranean Quarterly. 17:66-85 Watson R.T., .Zinyowera M.C, Moss R.H. (Eds). (1997). IPCC Special Report on The Regional <strong>Impact</strong>s <strong>of</strong> <strong>Climate</strong> <strong>Change</strong> An Assessment <strong>of</strong> Vulnerability. Cambridge University Press, UK. World Database on Protected Areas – WDPA. At: http://www.wdpa.org/MultiSelect.aspx
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XII INTRODUCTION A number o
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XIV INTRODUCTION nology cooperation
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XVI INTRODUCTION The respondents to
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XVIII INTRODUCTION activities based
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XX INTRODUCTION by climate change.
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XXII INTRODUCTION REGIONAL CLIMATE
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CHAPTER 1 1 Arab Public Opinion and
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CHAPTER 2 13 GHG Emissions: Mitigat
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CHAPTER 3 31 A Remote Sensing Study
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CHAPTER 4 47 Impact</strong
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