Impact of Climate Change on Arab Countries - (IPCC) - Working ...

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ARAB ENVIRONMENT: CLIMATE CHANGE 149 do not allow for complacency. The Arab region’s minimal contribution to climate changing GHG emissions is dwarfed by the region’s immense vulnerability to climate change, be it through rising temperatures, water scarcity, desertification, sea level rise, or even conflict (AFED, 2008). Like many other countries, Arab countries have a vested interest to push forcefully for an independent environmental system that houses a diversity <strong>of</strong> climate change mitigation policies and <strong>of</strong>fers a mixture <strong>of</strong> positive and negative measures to achieve its ends. The following are recommendations for the Arab states to consider as they cooperate with other countries in the development <strong>of</strong> a new climate change mitigation framework: • In addition to the well-known tools <strong>of</strong> trade policies, measures such as access to technology and finance and building <strong>of</strong> infrastructural capacities are essential for a fair and equitable outcome. These measures should be negotiated within the framework <strong>of</strong> a separate post-Kyoto MEA outside the purview <strong>of</strong> the WTO. • Access to affordable clean technology to reduce emissions should be negotiated along the lines <strong>of</strong> the clean development mechanism (CDM) in the Kyoto Protocol, e.g. developed countries could provide financing for the mitigation and adaptation measures <strong>of</strong> the developing countries. • Developing clean energy technologies should be a top priority; the abundance <strong>of</strong> alternative energy sources in the Arab world should be harnessed to facilitate climate change mitigation as well as economic development. • Arab countries will also have to be very careful to ensure that any trade measures incorporated in the post-Kyoto Protocol are in conformity with the rules and disciplines <strong>of</strong> the international trade regime, i.e. fulfilling the relevant criteria <strong>of</strong> the WTO. • It is essential for Arab states to reach a consensus amongst themselves on a unified position regarding the ongoing negotiations in the WTO on environmental goods and services as well as PPMs. • Ultimately, the Arab world should seek to demarcate the boundary between a post-Kyoto MEA and the WTO. REFERENCES Arab Forum for Environment and Development – AFED (2008). Arab Environment, Future Challenges. AFED Annual Report 2008. N. Saab and M.K. Tolba (Eds.). Beirut, Lebanon: Technical Publications. Hmaidan, Wael (2007). “<strong>Climate</strong> change will not spare the Arab World.” http://www.mectat.com.lb/metopics/climate/climat.ht m [accessed February 12, 2009]. International Energy Agency – IEA (2007). World Economic Outlook (WEO) 2007. Intergovernmental Panel on <strong>Climate</strong> <strong>Change</strong> – IPCC (2007), Summary for Policymakers. In: <strong>Climate</strong> <strong>Change</strong> 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution <strong>of</strong> Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report <strong>of</strong> the Intergovernmental Panel on <strong>Climate</strong> <strong>Change</strong> [Solomon, S., D. Qin, M. Manning, Z. Chen, M. Marquis, K.B. Averyt, M.Tignor and H.L. Miller (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA. UNEP, IISD (2000). Environment and Trade: a Handbook. United Nations Environment Program, International Institute for Sustainable Development, Canada. World Trade Organization - WTO (1998). United States-Import Prohibition <strong>of</strong> Shrimp and Certain Shrimp Products, AB Report, WT/DS58/AB/R (12 October 1998). NOTES (i) Compared to OECD countries whose share <strong>of</strong> emissions is 41.9%. See UNDP (2007/2008), Human Development Report: UAE, United Nations Development Program, New York. Available at: http://hdrstats.undp.org/countries/country_fact_ sheets/cty_fs_ARE.html , accessed March 12, 2009. (ii) UN Conference held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 on Environment and Development. Principle 7 stipulates that “In view <strong>of</strong> the different contributions to global environmental degradation, States have common but differentiated responsibilities.” (iii) (iv) Report presented to Singapore 1st Ministerial Meeting (December 1996) paragraph 174 (i, ii, iii, iv, v) In the shrimp-turtle dispute case, the Appellate Body went as far as it could in trying to identify with the US’ ‘unilateral’ ban on shrimp labeling it “as an appropriate means to an end”, yet stopped short <strong>of</strong> giving its blessing for the erroneous application <strong>of</strong> the measure which proscribed the use <strong>of</strong> a specific fishing method in order to conserve sea turtles. It not only
150 CHAPTER 12 INTERRELATION BETWEEN CLIMATE CHANGE AND TRADE NEGOTIATIONS (v) (vi) criticized the measure as being ‘unilateral’ without any attempt on the part <strong>of</strong> the US to reach a consensual solution for the protection and conservation <strong>of</strong> sea turtles, but also found the measure to be ‘discriminatory’ as it favored Caribbean countries over Asian nations. See: United States—Import Prohibition <strong>of</strong> Shrimp and Certain Shrimp Products, AB Report, WT/DS58/AB/R (12 October 1998). Even in the aftermath <strong>of</strong> the oil crisis after the ME 1973 war, when the US pushed to place the issue <strong>of</strong> export restrictions on the agenda <strong>of</strong> Tokyo round, it was resisted as a generic issue for its wider implications. See: UNCTAD (2000). Annual Report. United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, Geneva and New York. The Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) has broadly defined environmental services as “services capable <strong>of</strong> measuring, preventing, limiting or correcting environmental damage such as pollution <strong>of</strong> water, air soil as well as waste and noise-related problems. Source: OECD (1996). The Global Environmental Goods and Services Industry. Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, Paris. Environmental goods may encompass a wide array <strong>of</strong> products and technologies required to successfully perform the above environmental services. Available online at: (http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/11/10/2090577 .pdf) (vii) http://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/minist_ e/,om01_e/mindecl_e.htm (viii) In accordance with the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS). (ix) (x) Gulf countries have been at the forefront in privatization and trade liberalization <strong>of</strong> the environmental services sectors. To varying degrees, these countries have deregulated and privatized their water, energy and solid waste management sectors. While trade liberalization has thus far been effected on a unilateral basis, several Gulf countries (Qatar, Oman, Saudi Arabia and UAE) have opened up to foreign investment multilaterally under the GATS. These countries include Bahrain, Kuwait, Qatar, Oman, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates. To a more limited extent, Jordan has partially opened its environmental services market, although not yet in the areas <strong>of</strong> water treatment and solid waste management. Certain member states, such as China and India, have proposed a similar treatment <strong>of</strong> EGS to that <strong>of</strong> services, wherein liberalization could follow a request and <strong>of</strong>fer approach, or take place in the context <strong>of</strong> specific projects. Statement by the Chairperson <strong>of</strong> the Special Session <strong>of</strong> the Committee on Trade and Environment to the Trade Negotiations (xi) Committee. TN/TE/2 (July 2002). ESCWA (2007). The Liberalization <strong>of</strong> Trade in Environmental Goods and Services in the ESCWA and Arab Regions. United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia, New York. E/ESCWA/SDPD/2007/WP.1. The study was presented at the ‘Expert Meeting on Trade and Environment Priorities in the Arab Region’ held from 11-13 November, 2007 in Cairo. (xii) In the past, GATT legal rulings on ‘likeness’ have been varied, and the construction <strong>of</strong> ‘likeness’ has not been the same in all rulings, however, generally distinctions <strong>of</strong> ‘likeness’ are measured on the basis <strong>of</strong>: 1) physical similarity, 2) whether they are separated or classified as together in international customs tariffs 3) whether consumers treat them as interchangeable (relating to consumer tastes, preferences, and habits) 4) whether they have the same end uses. (xiii) In 1991 a GATT panel ruled against a U.S. regulation that barred the importation <strong>of</strong> tuna from certain fishing nations. The panel noted that the U.S. was distinguishing between tuna based on the method by which it was caught, favoring the product that had comparatively less impact on dolphins. The panel determined that the treatment <strong>of</strong> the tuna must be the same regardless <strong>of</strong> how it was harvested. See: GATT, Dispute Settlement Panel Report on US Restrictions on Imports <strong>of</strong> Tuna, (1991) 30 I.L.M. 1594 [Tuna I]. GATT, Dispute Settlement Panel Report on US Restrictions on Imports <strong>of</strong> Tuna, (1994) 33 I.L.M. 839 [Tuna II]. (xiv) An end product usually goes through a number <strong>of</strong> stages before it actually reaches the market. For example: making paper requires trees to be grown and harvested, the wood to be processed, and the pulp to be bleached, and so on. The various processes will have different sorts <strong>of</strong> environmental impacts—on biodiversity, on forest-based streams and wildlife, on human health from chemical pollution <strong>of</strong> waterways, or in terms <strong>of</strong> air pollution and energy use. Other paper may be made from post-consumer waste, a different process involving a different set <strong>of</strong> environmental impacts. The end products will be the same—paper—but the production methods will have completely different environmental impacts. In cases where different production methods actually lead to different products, i.e. the papers must be used, handled, or disposed <strong>of</strong> differently, they are referred to as ‘productrelated’ PPMs See: UNEP, IISD (2000). Environment and Trade: a Handbook. United Nations Environment Program, International Institute for Sustainable Development, Canada. For our purposes PPMs will refer to non-product related unless otherwise noted.
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Arab Environment: Climate</
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XII INTRODUCTION A number o
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XIV INTRODUCTION nology cooperation
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XVI INTRODUCTION The respondents to
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XVIII INTRODUCTION activities based
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XX INTRODUCTION by climate change.
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XXII INTRODUCTION REGIONAL CLIMATE
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CHAPTER 1 1 Arab Public Opinion and
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ARAB ENVIRONMENT: CLIMATE CHANGE 3
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CHAPTER 2 13 GHG Emissions: Mitigat
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CHAPTER 3 31 A Remote Sensing Study
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CHAPTER 4 47 Impact</strong
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