Impact of Climate Change on Arab Countries - (IPCC) - Working ...

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ARAB ENVIRONMENT: CLIMATE CHANGE 25 are mostly used in Arab countries with relatively few or no hydrocarbon resources. Several Concentrated Solar Power (CSP) projects were announced but not completed in North African countries, namely Egypt, Morocco and Algeria. With escalating concerns <strong>of</strong> climate change, cost reductions and efficiency improvements <strong>of</strong> this technology, and the introduction <strong>of</strong> independent power producers (IPPs), CSP will play an important role in the electricity generation mix in those countries in the near future. A recent plan announced in Algeria in 2007 included the building <strong>of</strong> four gas-CSP plants with total capacity <strong>of</strong> 1700 MW <strong>of</strong> which 250 MW will be solar. The four power plants will be gradually commissioned through 2015. Egypt submitted an <strong>of</strong>ficial request to the GEF to support financing the first solar thermal power plant. Work is underway to implement the first Egyptian hybrid solar thermal power plant <strong>of</strong> 140 MW capacity <strong>of</strong> which 20 MW will be solar, while the rest will be gas combined cycle. The plant is planned to be operational in 2010. A similar project is under construction in Morocco to build a similar hybrid gas combined cycle 472 MW solar thermal power plant with a solar component capacity <strong>of</strong> 30 MW. The project was initiated in 1994 following a feasibility study <strong>of</strong> solar thermal power generation. Ain Beni Mathar in Eastern Morocco was finally selected to site the power plant. Jerusalem District Electricity Company (JDECO) has signed an agreement with an American Company (Nanovo) to establish a concentrated solar power plant in Jericho, Palestine. The first phase <strong>of</strong> the project will have a 3 MW capacity and will cost up to $17 million, financed by the American company. The next phase will expand the plant to a 100 MW capacity with a total cost <strong>of</strong> up to $300 million (PERC, 2009). In 2002, Jordan announced plans to build a 130 MW solar hybrid power plant. The project aimed at the development <strong>of</strong> 100-150 MW solar hybrid power plant assisted with fuel oil or natural gas at Quwairah south <strong>of</strong> Jordan on a Build Own Operate (BOO) basis. The UAE has chosen a different path to promote CSP, focusing on promoting R&D through the Masdar Initiative. The UAE has 100 MW <strong>of</strong> CSP open for tenders planned to be expanded to 500 MW. Measures to reduce GHG from Nonenergy sectors Some other non-energy sectors and economic activities are contributing to the global anthropogenic emissions <strong>of</strong> GHGs. Examples are agriculture activities and solid waste management practices. The Agriculture Sector Although CO 2 emissions from fossil fuels are the major cause <strong>of</strong> global climate change, about onethird <strong>of</strong> the total human-induced warming effect comes from agriculture and land-use change. This is mainly because agricultural activities are the major source <strong>of</strong> methane and nitrous oxides which both have much higher global warming potential (GWP) than CO 2 . Agricultural lands occupy 37% <strong>of</strong> the Earth’s land surface and account for 52% and 84% <strong>of</strong> global methane and nitrous oxide emissions, respectively (Smith, 2007). On the other hand, the agricultural sector can be part <strong>of</strong> the mitigation strategies by reducing its own emissions, <strong>of</strong>fsetting emissions from other sectors by removing CO 2 from the atmosphere (via photosynthesis) and storing the carbon in soils. These processes are major parts <strong>of</strong> the global carbon and nitrogen cycles. Through the adoption <strong>of</strong> agricultural best management practices, emissions <strong>of</strong> nitrous oxide from agricultural soils, methane from livestock production and manure, and CO 2 from on-farm energy use can be reduced. TABLE 2 MARKET SIZE OF SOLAR WATER HEATERS IN SELECTED ARAB COUNTRIES Country Current market size (m 2 ) Morocco (annual) 130,000 Algeria - Tunisia 57,000 Egypt 500,000 Palestine 1,630,000 Jordan 825,000 Lebanon 177,993 Syria 200,000 (Source: SOLATERM Project Partners)
26 CHAPTER 2 GHG EMISSIONS: MITIGATION EFFORTS IN THE ARAB COUNTRIES Measures reported in the national communications <strong>of</strong> some Arab countries under agriculture included: introduction <strong>of</strong> new varieties <strong>of</strong> rice and management <strong>of</strong> paddies to reduce CH 4 emissions, rational use <strong>of</strong> fertilizers to reduce N 2 O emissions, increase <strong>of</strong> soil water absorption, and reduction <strong>of</strong> burning agricultural residues. Measures in the livestock-related operations included changing <strong>of</strong> cattle fodders to reduce CH 4 emissions from enteric fermentation, manure management and management <strong>of</strong> livestock population. The initial national communication <strong>of</strong> Egypt is nearly the only available report that describes in detail the different options available to Egypt to reduce CH 4 emissions from rice paddies. These options include: rice cultivation <strong>of</strong> short duration varieties, water management, fertilizer management, and control <strong>of</strong> soil temperature. The same report recommends some actions to reduce CH 4 emissions from livestock by altering fermentation patterns, i.e. altering the composition <strong>of</strong> fodders. Some <strong>of</strong> these options are already being implemented in Egypt such as cultivation <strong>of</strong> short duration varieties, water and fertilizer management with the aims <strong>of</strong> water management and reduction <strong>of</strong> use <strong>of</strong> agrochemicals. Additionally, only Mauritania reported projects concerning improved water and fertilizer management, and improved efficiency <strong>of</strong> use <strong>of</strong> nitrogen fertilizers. Waste Management Waste management practices produce greenhouse gas emissions in a number <strong>of</strong> ways. First, the anaerobic decomposition <strong>of</strong> waste in landfills produces methane. Second, open burning or incineration <strong>of</strong> waste produces combustion gases including carbon dioxide. In addition, combustion <strong>of</strong> fuels used in transportation <strong>of</strong> waste to disposal sites is another source <strong>of</strong> GHG emissions. Sound waste management practices such as waste prevention, minimization and recycling, better reduce GHG emissions from the waste sector. These include reduction <strong>of</strong> methane emissions from landfills though diverting organic wastes from landfills to composting or other biological treatment facilities, and reducing emissions from incinerators. Generation <strong>of</strong> solid waste in the Arab region has been growing for the past few decades. This is attributed to population growth, urbanization, economic growth and rising standards <strong>of</strong> living in many countries. However, to different degrees, most <strong>of</strong> the Arab countries still lack integrated systems for solid waste management. Per capita generation <strong>of</strong> solid waste is normally correlated with income, and it reaches high levels in higher income countries <strong>of</strong> the GCC. Organic waste still represents more than 50% <strong>of</strong> the composition <strong>of</strong> solid waste in many Arab countries. This is a large potential source <strong>of</strong> methane emissions which has been underestimated. Open dumping is the most common method <strong>of</strong> waste disposal throughout the Arab region. Municipalities usually dump solid wastes in lowlying land, or abandoned quarries rather than at designated dump sites, usually named landfills. In addition to being poorly managed, these sites generally lack most <strong>of</strong> the engineering and sanitary measures for leachate collection and treatment, and methane capture. In many instances spontaneous fires break out on these sites causing severe air quality problems. Two demonstration projects for capture <strong>of</strong> landfill gases in Amman and Kuwait were implemented though no documentations <strong>of</strong> the results are available. Incineration and waste-to-energy technologies are capital intensive and only used in some cases <strong>of</strong> treating hazardous wastes such as in Bahrain and Egypt, both without energy recovery. Biological systems are either aerobic or anaerobic, but aerobic processes are most common in the Arab cities to produce compost. There are many composting facilities in Egypt, Syria, Lebanon, Tunisia, Saudi Arabia, Qatar, as well as in other Arab countries. In the Arab national communication reports, measures reported to mitigate GHG emissions in this sector represented a wish list <strong>of</strong> different sound solid and liquid waste management practices. These included diversion <strong>of</strong> organic materials from landfills to produce compost, recovery <strong>of</strong> methane from landfills to generate electricity, and strengthening the legislative and institutional framework for better management <strong>of</strong> solid waste. In addition, measures frequently reported included education, training and public awareness on waste issues. Some <strong>of</strong> these activities are
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158 ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS MENA
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