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pipelines. 44 Examples of cost-effective options for reducing methane emissions from the natural gas system include (1) changing operations and maintenance practices, (2) increasing leak detection and repair, and (3) 45, 46, 47 upgrading equipment (see Figure 7-2). There are economic, environmental and safety benefits associated with modernizing the natural gas TS&D system. Policies are needed to ensure that private companies can recover costs of such investments to improve safety and reduce emissions. 48 In addition, while a number of actions may not have net benefits when only accounting for the monetary value of conserved gas, some of these can be cost effective if the climate change and safety benefits are taken into account. To achieve these societal benefits, there is an important role for government—often in partnership with industry—to advance new technologies and encourage investments. A combination of ongoing Administration actions and QER recommendations meet this need for Federal action. Figure 7-2. Total Emissions Abatement Potential (million metric tons CO 2 -equivalent per year) 49, m Mariginal Cost (2013$/Metric Ton CO 2 e) 55 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 -5 -10 -15 Centrifugal compressors (wet seals) Pipeline venting Centrifugal compressors (wet seals) Centrifugal compressors (wet seals) Centrifugal compressors (wet seals) Transmission station venting Kimray pumps Kimray pumps Kimray pumps High bleed pneum. devices High bleed pneum. devices Gas fueled engines and turbines LDC meters and regulators Gas fueled engines and turbines Well fugitives Recip. compressor rod packing Recip. compressor rod packing Recip. compressor rod packing Recip. compressor rod packing Recip. compressor rod packing Intermit. bleed pneum. devices Intermit. bleed pneum. devices Compress. station fugitives Recip. compressor fugitives Recip. compressor fugitives Compress. station fugitives Recip. compressor fugitives High bleed pneum. devices High bleed pneum. devices Recip. compressor fugitives Intermit. bleed pneum. devices Compress. station fugitives Intermit. bleed pneum. devices Liquids unloading - uncontrolled Recip. compressor fugitives Gas fueled engines and turbines Chemical Injection pumps Condensate tanks w/o cntrl. devices 0 20 40 60 Total Emissions Abatement Potential (Million Metric Tons CO 2 e/yr) Production Gathering & boosting Processing Transmission Storage LNG Distribution Assuming full revenue recovered from the sale of captured natural gas, an estimated 40 million metric tons CO 2 -equivalent of methane emissions abatement could be achieved at a negative marginal cost; under this scenario, at a marginal cost below the Social Cost of Carbon, all segments of natural gas infrastructure have potential opportunities for cost-effective methane abatement. Acronyms: intermittent (intermit.); pneumatic (pneum.); local distribution company (LDC); liquefied natural gas (LNG); reciprocating (recip.). m The social cost of carbon is a metric that monetizes the societal benefits and costs of emitting an additional ton of carbon. The social cost of carbon at a 3 percent discount rate in year 2015 and in 2015 dollars is $43 per ton CO 2 . Source: Interagency Working Group on Social Cost of Carbon, 2013. Technical Support Document: Technical Update of the Social Cost of Carbon for Regulatory Impact Analysis – Under Executive Order 12866. May. U.S. Government. QER Report: Energy Transmission, Storage, and Distribution Infrastructure | April 2015 7-9
Chapter VII: Addressing Environmental Aspects of TS&D Infrastructure GHGI and Methane Measurement The White House’s Strategy to Reduce Methane Emissions calls for the U.S. government to assess current emissions data and address identified data gaps. 50 The U.S. natural gas profile has dramatically changed in the last 10 years. Ongoing efforts to update the data used to calculate GHGI emissions estimates are being privately and federally funded and carried out by several researchers, including large multi-stakeholder efforts. 51 Under the 2014 “Climate Action Plan” Strategy to Reduce Methane Emissions, EPA will continue to update and enhance the data published in its annual GHGI as new scientific evidence and data sources emerge. Improving the efficiency of equipment operating along the natural gas supply chain, especially compressors, would reduce GHG emissions and other combustion-related emissions of criteria air pollutants and ozone precursors. Additional opportunities for technical efficiency improvements include pipeline operations, sizing, layout, cleaning, and interior coatings, as well as opportunities for waste heat recovery. While the greatest opportunities for efficiency improvement lie in new systems, options do exist for improving the efficiency of existing systems as well. 52 Reducing GHG Emissions from Refineries and Energy Transport Petroleum refineries are among the most energy-intensive manufacturing facilities in the United States, 53 which results in substantial CO 2 emissions—both onsite and offsite of these facilities. Onsite emissions of CO 2 from petroleum refineries accounted for more than 30 percent of CO 2 emissions from U.S. manufacturing 54 and 4 percent of total CO 2 emissions from fossil energy combustion. n The combination of all other TS&D infrastructure—including biofuel refineries, 55 liquid fuel pipelines, and vehicles that transport energy 56 directly or indirectly (i.e., through the use of electricity)—contribute to CO 2 emissions in relatively smaller amounts. The primary means for reducing CO 2 emissions from refineries is through efficiency improvements. Analysis 57, 58 has also consistently found that there remain opportunities for additional efficiency improvement. Administration Activities and Plans to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Transmission, Storage, and Distribution Infrastructures Building on the 2014 interagency Strategy to Reduce Methane Emissions, in January 2015, the President announced a national goal to reduce methane emissions from the oil and gas sector 40–45 percent from 2012 levels by 2025, as well as a set of actions to put the United States on a path to achieve this ambitious goal. These goals include the following: Common-sense standards for methane emissions from new and modified sources. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) will initiate a rulemaking effort to set standards for methane and volatile organic compound emissions from new and modified oil and gas production sources and natural gas processing and transmission sources. EPA will issue a proposed rule in the summer of 2015, and a final rule will follow in 2016. New guidelines to reduce volatile organic compounds. EPA will develop new guidelines to assist states in reducing ozone-forming pollutants from existing oil and gas systems in areas that do not meet the ozone health standard and in states in the Ozone Transport Region—an added benefit will be methane emissions reductions. Enhancing leak detection and emissions reporting. EPA will continue to promote transparency and accountability for existing sources by strengthening its Greenhouse Gas Reporting Program to require reporting in all segments of the industry. In addition to finalizing updates to the program, by the end of 2015, EPA will explore potential regulatory opportunities for applying remote-sensing technologies and other innovations in measurement and monitoring technology to further improve the identification and quantification of emissions and improve the overall accuracy and transparency of reported data in a cost-effective manner. n This compares direct CO 2 emissions from refineries in 2012 (210 million metric tons) with the Energy Information Administration’s estimate of total CO 2 emissions from fossil fuels in 2012 (5,255 million metric tons). More information can be found on the Energy Information Administration’s Environment website at www.eia.gov/environment/. 7-10 QER Report: Energy Transmission, Storage, and Distribution Infrastructure | April 2015
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QUADRENNIAL ENERGY REVIEW: ENERGY T
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Preface In June 2013, through the P
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Presidential Memorandum The White H
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(xx) the Small Business Administrat
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TABLE OF CONTENTS Preface..........
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LIST OF FIGURES Figure SPM-1. Age b
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Figure 7-7. Conditions Affecting Li
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Summary TRANSFORMING U.S. ENERGY IN
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same systems (e.g., ports and railw
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Aging Infrastructure and Changing R
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Actions taken in the first term of
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Figure SPM-3. Billion-Dollar Disast
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Key Findings Mitigating energy disr
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Recommendations in Brief To continu
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The potential range of new transmis
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Improve grid communication through
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Undertake a study of the relationsh
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• Doubling the size of the Inland
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Key Findings The United States has
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Promote Caribbean energy TS&D infra
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Recommendations in Brief Improve qu
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• Developing curricula and certif
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(2) the Fish and Wildlife Service I
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Table SPM-2. Examples of Federal Me
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Chapter I INTRODUCTION This chapter
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The requirements that this TS&D inf
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Increases in U.S. Oil and Natural G
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Increased Deployment of Renewable E
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Figure 1-3. Percent Change in Retai
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Climate Science The key conclusions
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Figure 1-7. Change in Annual Averag
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Other actions to deploy low-carbon
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Figure 1-8. Historic and Projected
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Government can build and incentiviz
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Notes: 1. Analyses were conducted w
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Organization of the Remainder of th
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Endnotes 1. Edison Electric Institu
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39. Energy Information Administrati
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Chapter II INCREASING THE RESILIENC
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The Importance of Resilient, Reliab
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Figure 2-1. Illustration of Tornado
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Continued increases in extreme weat
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Weather-Related and Other Reliabili
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Drought is also problematic. In 201
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Electricity TS&D Vulnerabilities Va
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Distribution hardening projects are
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Although pipelines above and below
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Safety and Methane Emissions from G
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Indianapolis’ in 2013 (see Figure
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Natural Gas Infrastructure Dependen
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• The changing geography of natur
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ose to greater than $34 per million
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NE MN IA MO WI IL MI IN KY TN OH Gr
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Vulnerability of Fuel Supply Disrup
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Figure 2-8. Earthquake Vulnerabilit
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Liquid Fuel TS&D Dependencies on El
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Results from an Argonne National La
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QER Recommendations (continued) Sup
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QER Recommendations (continued) Ana
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Endnotes 1. Government Accountabili
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31. The Climate Institute. “Water
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63. Global Climate Change Research
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131. Quadrennial Energy Review Anal
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Chapter III MODERNIZING THE ELECTRI
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The Electric Grid in Transition The
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esources, including central station
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demand; and the costs of alternativ
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In the Southwest, transmission buil
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Pumped hydro storage currently repr
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Resilience investments can require
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Communication with Customer Devices
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and maintenance of the interconnect
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technical experts to develop a set
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Table 3-2. Taxonomy of Utility Busi
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Figure 3-6. Select Electricity Juri
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QER Recommendations The Administrat
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QER Recommendations (continued) Coo
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RECOMMENDATIONS IN BRIEF: Modernizi
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48. North American Electric Reliabi
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Chapter IV MODERNIZING U.S. ENERGY
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A Broad and Collective View of Ener
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States was forecast to become highl
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Changing Global and Domestic Oil Ma
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QER Recommendations SPR MODERNIZATI
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Biofuels and TS&D Infrastructure Is
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QER Recommendations TS&D INFRASTRUC
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The United States and Canada share
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Endnotes 1. Foreign Affairs, Trade
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Chapter V IMPROVING SHARED TRANSPOR
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Increased Use of Shared Transport I
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There are several reasons for this
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Congestion and Competition among Co
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Coal Transportation by Rail Coal re
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Ethanol Transportation by Rail Etha
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QER Recommendations RAIL TRANSPORT
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Figure 5-6. Annual Refinery Receipt
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Funding mechanisms for maintaining
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Inland shippers that want to move a
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Chapter IX: Siting and Permitting o
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9-26 QER Report: Energy Transmi
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Chapter X: Analytical and Stakehold
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LIST OF ACRONYMS AND UNITS APE - Ar
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