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Figure 1-7. Change in Annual Average Air Temperature between 1970–1999 and 2070–2099 under Low- and High- Emission Scenarios for Global GHGs 68 Lower Emissions Higher Emissions Temperature Change (°F) 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 15 QER Report: Energy Transmission, Storage, and Distribution Infrastructure | April 2015 1-13
Chapter I: Introduction Human Causes of Climate Change The most important of the anthropogenic emissions driving global climate change are those of CO 2 , methane, and particulate black carbon. Of the total warming influences exerted by anthropogenic emissions since the nominal start of the Industrial Revolution in 1750, 42 percent came from CO 2 emissions, 24 percent from methane emissions, and 16 percent from particulate black carbon emissions; the remainder was divided almost equally among emissions of halocarbons, nitrous oxide, and carbon monoxide (which converts to CO 2 in the atmosphere). 69 The relative importance of CO 2 emissions compared to those of the other heat-trapping substances has been growing over time, moreover. Based on integrated warming influence over the next 100 years, U.S. emissions of CO 2 in 2013 accounted for more than 82 percent of the impact of all U.S. GHG emissions combined for that year. 70 The share of CO 2 as a proportion of all global GHG emissions in the same year, calculated on the same basis, was about the same. 71 The main sources of the anthropogenic additions of CO 2 to the atmosphere over the course of the industrial revolution have been fossil fuel burning (including flaring of natural gas), cement production, and land-use change. By 2013, the fossil fuel and cement contribution accounted for 92 percent of the total. 72 U.S. CO 2 emissions from fossil fuels and cement in 2013 amounted to about 17 percent of the world total and came from oil burning (40 percent), coal burning (30 percent), useful natural gas burning (25 percent), non-energy uses of fossil fuels (3 percent), cement manufacturing and other non-fossil-fuel industrial activities (1 percent), and gas flaring (1 percent). 73 In recent years, the main contributors to global emissions of methane from human activities have been the fossil fuel system (30 percent of human-caused emissions), livestock (27 percent), landfills (21 percent), biomass/biofuels burning (11 percent), and rice cultivation (11 percent). 74 In the United States, which accounts for about 8 percent of anthropogenic methane emissions worldwide, the role of the energy system in methane emissions has been larger; the main contributors in 2013 were the fossil fuel system (43 percent), livestock and manure management (34 percent), and landfills and other waste management (20 percent). 75 TS&D systems are responsible for only a small fraction of overall U.S. emissions. There are nonetheless opportunities to reduce emissions from this sector—for example, through halting methane leakage from natural gas pipelines and processing facilities. And, of course, the expanded implementation of no- and low- CO 2 energy technologies being undertaken to reduce the energy system’s GHG emissions overall will place additional demands on TS&D in some cases (e.g., to link remote renewable energy sources with demand centers and to move captured CO 2 from fossil-fueled (and, possibly biomass-fueled) power plants through pipeline networks to sites for productive use or geologic storage). The U.S. Response to the Climate Change Challenge The Obama Administration has addressed the growing threat from climate change through a comprehensive set of energy and environmental strategies to cut GHG emissions domestically and through sustained diplomacy to spur global action. The Administration’s First Term First term actions include $80 billion of investments in a cleaner, more efficient U.S. energy future through the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009, as well as additional funding through subsequent Presidential budgets; the promulgation of the first-ever joint fuel economy/GHG emission standards for lightduty vehicles and new, more stringent energy efficiency standards for commercial and residential appliances; and the announcement of a U.S. emissions reduction target in the range of 17 percent below the 2005 level by 2020. 1-14 QER Report: Energy Transmission, Storage, and Distribution Infrastructure | April 2015
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QUADRENNIAL ENERGY REVIEW: ENERGY T
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Preface In June 2013, through the P
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Presidential Memorandum The White H
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(xx) the Small Business Administrat
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TABLE OF CONTENTS Preface..........
Page 11 and 12: LIST OF FIGURES Figure SPM-1. Age b
Page 13 and 14: Figure 7-7. Conditions Affecting Li
Page 15 and 16: Summary TRANSFORMING U.S. ENERGY IN
Page 17 and 18: same systems (e.g., ports and railw
Page 19 and 20: Aging Infrastructure and Changing R
Page 21 and 22: Actions taken in the first term of
Page 23 and 24: Figure SPM-3. Billion-Dollar Disast
Page 25 and 26: Key Findings Mitigating energy disr
Page 27 and 28: Recommendations in Brief To continu
Page 29 and 30: The potential range of new transmis
Page 31 and 32: Improve grid communication through
Page 33 and 34: Undertake a study of the relationsh
Page 35 and 36: • Doubling the size of the Inland
Page 37 and 38: Key Findings The United States has
Page 39 and 40: Promote Caribbean energy TS&D infra
Page 41 and 42: Recommendations in Brief Improve qu
Page 43 and 44: • Developing curricula and certif
Page 45 and 46: (2) the Fish and Wildlife Service I
Page 47 and 48: Table SPM-2. Examples of Federal Me
Page 50 and 51: Chapter I INTRODUCTION This chapter
Page 52 and 53: The requirements that this TS&D inf
Page 54 and 55: Increases in U.S. Oil and Natural G
Page 56 and 57: Increased Deployment of Renewable E
Page 58 and 59: Figure 1-3. Percent Change in Retai
Page 60 and 61: Climate Science The key conclusions
Page 64 and 65: Other actions to deploy low-carbon
Page 66 and 67: Figure 1-8. Historic and Projected
Page 68 and 69: Government can build and incentiviz
Page 70 and 71: Notes: 1. Analyses were conducted w
Page 72 and 73: Organization of the Remainder of th
Page 74 and 75: Endnotes 1. Edison Electric Institu
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Page 80 and 81: Chapter II INCREASING THE RESILIENC
Page 82 and 83: The Importance of Resilient, Reliab
Page 84 and 85: Figure 2-1. Illustration of Tornado
Page 86 and 87: Continued increases in extreme weat
Page 88 and 89: Weather-Related and Other Reliabili
Page 90 and 91: Drought is also problematic. In 201
Page 92 and 93: Electricity TS&D Vulnerabilities Va
Page 94 and 95: Distribution hardening projects are
Page 96 and 97: Although pipelines above and below
Page 98 and 99: Safety and Methane Emissions from G
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Page 102 and 103: Natural Gas Infrastructure Dependen
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Figure 2-8. Earthquake Vulnerabilit
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Liquid Fuel TS&D Dependencies on El
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Results from an Argonne National La
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QER Recommendations (continued) Sup
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QER Recommendations (continued) Ana
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Endnotes 1. Government Accountabili
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31. The Climate Institute. “Water
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63. Global Climate Change Research
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93. Energy Information Administrati
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131. Quadrennial Energy Review Anal
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Chapter III MODERNIZING THE ELECTRI
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The Electric Grid in Transition The
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esources, including central station
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demand; and the costs of alternativ
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In the Southwest, transmission buil
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Pumped hydro storage currently repr
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Resilience investments can require
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Communication with Customer Devices
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and maintenance of the interconnect
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technical experts to develop a set
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Table 3-2. Taxonomy of Utility Busi
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Figure 3-6. Select Electricity Juri
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QER Recommendations The Administrat
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QER Recommendations (continued) Coo
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RECOMMENDATIONS IN BRIEF: Modernizi
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48. North American Electric Reliabi
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Chapter IV MODERNIZING U.S. ENERGY
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A Broad and Collective View of Ener
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States was forecast to become highl
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Changing Global and Domestic Oil Ma
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QER Recommendations SPR MODERNIZATI
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Biofuels and TS&D Infrastructure Is
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QER Recommendations TS&D INFRASTRUC
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The United States and Canada share
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Endnotes 1. Foreign Affairs, Trade
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Chapter V IMPROVING SHARED TRANSPOR
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Increased Use of Shared Transport I
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There are several reasons for this
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Congestion and Competition among Co
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Coal Transportation by Rail Coal re
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Ethanol Transportation by Rail Etha
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QER Recommendations RAIL TRANSPORT
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Figure 5-6. Annual Refinery Receipt
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Funding mechanisms for maintaining
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Inland shippers that want to move a
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DOT reports that connecting roads t
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Uncertainty in U.S. Coal Exports U.
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capacities of 1.5 MW to 2.5 MW, 103
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QER Recommendations PORTS, HARBORS
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QER Recommendations (continued) MOD
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Endnotes 1. Department of Agricultu
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39. Quadrennial Energy Review Analy
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75. Army Corps of Engineers, Planni
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111. Department of Energy. “Wind
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Chapter VI INTEGRATING NORTH AMERIC
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Benefits of North American Energy S
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TS&D infrastructure already plays a
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for electric transmission facilitie
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35, 36 Figure 6-5. U.S. Natural Gas
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pumped hydropower storage could pro
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QER Recommendations NORTH AMERICAN
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Administration Activities and Plans
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Risk and Resilience in the Caribbea
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QER Recommendations CARIBBEAN ENERG
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Endnotes 1. Molburg, J.C., J.A. Kav
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Chapter VI: Integrating North Ameri
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Chapter VII: Addressing Environment
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Chapter VIII: Enhancing Employment
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Chapter IX: Siting and Permitting o
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9-26 QER Report: Energy Transmi
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Chapter X: Analytical and Stakehold
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LIST OF ACRONYMS AND UNITS APE - Ar
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