Great Ideas of Philosophy

Lecture Fifty-EightJustice and Just WarsScope: The ancient political philosophies of Plato, Aristotle, and Cicero reserve extensive space for the concept ofjustice, treating it chiefly as a virtue to be cultivated in the formation of good character. What we wouldtake to be matters of social justice or political justice are based on the same considerations of moderation,reasonableness, and the control of passions and enthusiasms of one sort or another. There is no principledobjection to class distinctions, nor is the institution of slavery or gender-based discrimination regarded asunjust. The one school of ancient philosophy that includes such notions as universal brotherhood or respectfor the dignity of every person is that of the Cynics. Their commitment to the most natural forms of lifestands as a criticism of all sorts of affectation. It is with certain of the Stoic philosophers, however, thatarguments are developed to the effect that the same rational principles operative in the cosmos must berespected in human affairs and that human rationality itself qualifies human beings for special standing.Only later, however, and under the influence of Christian theology, do these themes find development ofthe concept of natural rights possessed equally by all. Even adversaries in war are to be respected in waysthat acknowledge their humanity.Theories of the “just war,” beginning with St. Augustine and including such later commentators as St.Thomas Aquinas, Francisco de Vittoria, and Francisco Suarez, set forth the principles by which engagingin and conducting war are justified. The ultimate justification for waging war is securing a durable and justpeace. The manner in which the war is waged must be toward this end; actions proportioned to attain thisend must be at minimal cost in pain and suffering and with no further and selfish objectives. But to dogood and avoid evil, as a guide to governance, must also reflect back on the role of the state in relation toits own citizens, who are also subject to evil ends but capable of good and decent lives. Various defenses ofcoercion are considered in this connection.OutlineI. The concept of justice as an issue of rights—of giving one what is due, respecting one’s individual dignity, andso on—is a relatively late addition to questions of justice.A. Neither the ancient Greek nor ancient Roman world devoted much time or papyrus to the matter ofindividual rights.1. To the extent that Socrates, for example, may have had justice as a central concern, the conceptapplied to the criteria by which we judge a person’s character, rather than to the question of whetherthe state has been the source of justice.2. In Plato’s Republic, justice in the state is what leads to harmony and peace, but in the individual, ittakes the form of a selfless and rational commitment to do the morally right thing.3. For Aristotle and Cicero, justice is simply the “virtue of the magistrate” and, more or less, a matter ofconvention and of law.B. There are discussions of certain principles of justice, such as equity and fair distributions of goods. Theemphasis is on reasonableness and moderation. Justice is what we are each obliged to strive for in ourassociation with others and our dealings in the world.C. The ancient concept of justice is established in an intellectual framework that holds that there is a cosmicrational order and that a comparable rational order is the natural state of affairs for human societies.1. Rational beings are to be ruled by law rather than by force, and actions by and toward them carry theburden of justification.2. This line of thought, though foundational for all developed ideas of justice, does not conclude in clearstatements of universal human rights.D. Once we remove this conception of justice as a virtue and turn to conceptions of social justice or the rightsof man, the ancient world has much less to say.1. Aristotle insists that it is right that Hellenes shall rule barbarians.2. Plato’s republic is anti-democratic, committed to eugenic forms of human breeding, and classstructuredon meritocratic grounds.©2004 The Teaching Company Limited Partnership 29