Descriptive Psychopathology: The Signs and Symptoms of ...

308 Section 3: Examination domains41 Levine et al. (1998).42 de Haan et al. (2005); Stamouli and Lykouras (2006); Ma et al. (2007).43 Swartz and Shen (1999).44 de Haan et al. (2002); Ma et al. (2007).45 Chen and Dilsaver (1995); Perugi et al. (2001).46 Masi et al. (2004).47 Perugi et al. (2002); Zutshi et al. (2007).48 Riddle (1998); Sanchez et al. (1999).49 Perugi et al. (1997).50 Asbahr et al. (1998); Wang et al. (2003); Geller (2006).51 Robinson and Starkstein (1989).52 Yaryura-Tobias and Neziroglu (1991).53 Shapero et al. (1988); Sandor (1993); Fahn (1993).54 de La Tourette (1885).55 George et al. (1993); Teive et al. (2001).56 Although echophenomena are also classic signs of catatonia, clinically distinguishingcatatonia from GTS is not difficult. The common experience of features, however, isconsistent with the relationship between these conditions and basal ganglia dysfunction.57 Asbahr et al. (1998); Murphy et al. (2006).58 Because catatonia has been associated with an imbalance in GABA (too little A or too much B),the prescription of valproic acid (a strong GABA-B agonist) is risky and can result in arelapse of the catatonia. If a mood-stabilizing agent is required, carbamazepine (havingmore GABA-A than GABA-B activity) or lithium carbonate are better choices (Fink andTaylor, 2003).59 Antipsychotic agents can also exacerbate catatonia and elicit the malignant form of thecondition (Fink and Taylor, 2003).60 Thompson (1987), pages 25–47.61 Speranza et al. (2001); Kaye et al. (2004).62 Matsunaga et al. (1999); Albert et al. (2001).63 Anderluh et al. (2003).64 Rabe-Jablonska and Sobow Tomasz (2000).65 Modan-Moses et al. (2003).66 Fassino et al. (2001).67 Frank et al. (2004); Wagner et al. (2006).68 Katzman et al. (2001).69 Steiger and Bruce (2007).70 Angst (1998); Wittchen et al. (2003).71 Wonderlich et al. (2007); Steiger and Bruce (2007).72 O’Brien and Vincent (2003).73 McElroy et al. (2006).74 Ibid.75 Ibid.76 Steiger and Bruce (2007).