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Article IV.2 Toward A Better Understanding of CodeSwitching and Interlanguage in BilingualityLuisa DuranThe Journal of Educational Issues of Language Minority Students, v14 p69-88, Winter 1994.IntroductionThis paper attempts to help teachers involved in bilingual instruction come to a betterunderstanding of two important aspects of the whole process of bilingual development.Developmental knowledge should aid instructional knowledge, and instructional knowledgeshould aid development.The two major aspects of the bilingual development process which will be outlined here are thenotion of interlanguage and the notion of code-switching. It is important that these nonnormativeaspects of bilingual development be understood better from linguistic perspectives.There seems to be much misunderstanding of these two phenomena and how to treat them in theclassroom.Before a focus on interlanguage and code-switching is done, it is important to summarize whatwe know about language in its broadest and most varied forms, that is, in its monolingual,bilingual, multilingual forms, and althea stages of each.Commonality of All Language FormsThe language development process is a creative process if it is anything at all. The latestaccounts on language development across cultures underscore the notion of an orderly andsystematic linguistic process which is half imitation and half invention (Pfaff, 1987; Berko-Gleason, 1993; Edmundson, 1985). At the same time that language development is orderly andsystematic it is also complete yet not totally complete. While it does arrive at significantconsolidations, accomplishments, and achievements (what we may call stages), Durkin et al.(1986) say that these "will be subjected to addition, elaboration, refinement, re application andre-organization in the years ahead" (p. ix). Acquisition or development as both a synchronic(short-term) and as a diachronic (long-term) process is now better understood by those who studylanguage. Because we have come to understand both the continuous and discontinuouscharacteristics of language development we have also begun to focus our attention on both thenormative and the non-normative patterns of language behavior along this more holisticcontinuum. Nonnormative forms of language are now a major focus of linguistic study inmonolingual, bilingual, and multilingual development. What was and still is many times thoughtof by lay people as "strange," "deviant," "confusing," or “broken" language is being appreciatedby linguists, psycholinguists, and sociolinguists as part of the total natural language developmentand acquisition process. Continued research efforts in this area, along with the traditionalnormative focus, are yielding a portrait of language development which may be more accurateand more helpful to many but especially to those concerned with how to support the naturalcapacities and learning strategies of language learners. This may lead us to a more holistic androbust explanation and description of the language development or the languagelearning/acquisition continuum, spiral, or cycle across the life span, across cultures, and acrosssituations, contexts, and domains.© 2008 Dr. Catherine CollierAll Rights Reserved130
We will now look at two examples of non-normative linguistic behavior found in bothdeveloping bilinguals and in more developed ones. The term non-normative is used here to meanthose aspects of language behavior which are not seen as normal as other language forms bymost lay people. In bilinguality there is the more general notion which linguists call crosslinguisticinteraction or cross linguistic influence. While several particular forms of crosslinguisticinteractions are found in the literature, I will review only two in this paper,interlanguage and code-switching, and only in an introductory way.The Interlanguage NotionThe notion of interlanguage is central in the explanation of bilingual-learner language or SecondLanguage Acquisition (SLA) (Hamers &Blanc, 1990). Interlanguage is the result of theinteraction among the many language acquisition device factors in any two ( in multilingualsituations) languages developing more or less simultaneously. This linguistic behavior isdescribed similarly by many researchers in second-language acquisition and bilinguality studies.The term was first coined by Larry Selinker in 1972, and many others have since expanded thenotion. According the Hamers and Blanc (1990), between the choice of one language or the otherthere exists for the bilingual speaker a whole range of intermediary strategies which include themodification of either code and the relative use of both (see figures 1-8 in appendix ii).Interlanguage maybe viewed as an adaptive strategy in which the speaker tries to speak theinterlocutor’s L1 although he has little proficiency in it. This strategy uses simplification,reduction, overgeneralization, transfer, formulaic language, omissions, substitutions, andrestructurings (Selinker, 1972).Ellis (1985) explains interlanguage as the theoretical constructwhich underlies the attempts of SLA researchers to identify the stages ofdevelopment through which L2 learners pass on their way to L2 or near L2proficiency. He sayslearners do not progress from zero knowledge of a target rule to perfect knowledge of the rule.They progress through a series of interim or developmental stages on their way to targetlanguage competence. Interlanguage is described by many as permeable, dynamic, changing, andyet systematic (Corder, 1975; Selinker, 1972). It may undergo relative fossilization and relativechange, but it reveals an underlying cognitive process even though its surface structure seems theopposite because it does not match conventional forms of what is linguistically correct.According to Andersen (1984), interlanguage goes from a nativization process to adenativization one. For Andersen there has been too much focus on the acquisition of targetlanguage features rather than on the process of interlanguage construction itself. For him secondlanguage acquisition by any other name can and should be characterized in positive terms andprinciples that govern the construction of meaning-to-form and function-to-form relationships.For Klein (1986) interlanguages or learner-language varieties should be viewed not only assystematic as well as variable but also as creative with rules unique to itself and not just aborrowed form of the other languages. He says that however imperfect from a normative point ofview, these means represent the learner's current repertoire and, as such, a learner variety of thetarget language. He concludes that the process of language acquisition can be construed as aseries of transitions from one variety to the next. Pit Corder (1981) defines the structuralproperties of interlanguage as: (a) a simple morphological system, (b) a more or less fixed wordorder, (c) a simple personal pronoun system, (d) a small number of grammatical function words,(e) little or no use of the copula, and (f) the absence of an article system. He describes theinterlanguage notion as "transitional language" and presents a model which is inaccurate invarious respects but is always more or less complete. For Corder it is a working model, a© 2008 Dr. Catherine CollierAll Rights Reserved131
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"Those who arrive by age 12 or 13 m
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Article I.2 Are Signed Languages "R
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Biological analyses of the status o
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and beyond, speaking and signing ch
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Conclusion: Are Signed Languages Re
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Article I.3 The Interpreter: Has a
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A few weeks earlier, I had called F
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“We struggled even getting to the
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herself by strapping a cassette rec
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In 1998, after nine years as the ch
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momentary burst of excitement that
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can shape core grammar. Because the
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The authors compared animal and hum
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monkey moved. He followed it with h
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delight, fear, laughter, and surpri
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Piipaío in a hut: Pirahã huts typ
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LEP students, and equitable organiz
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4. Second language development crea
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curriculum or "teaching to the test
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portfolio work was scanned and stor
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experiences of many groups of stude
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While not disagreeing that interpre
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sound educational practice, however
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arises from the efforts to abstract
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Article II.2 Cross-Cultural Communi
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males who can serve as positive rol
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Understanding another culture is a
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Pets and AnimalsWhich animals are v
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to teach standard English is reflec
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Asking personal questions of a pers
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Using Cross Cultural Communication
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Why Do Nonstandard English-Speaking
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Before beginning to teach standard
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• Negative attitudes toward low p
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New standardized tests and assessme
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Each of the behaviors listed above
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Article II.3 Hard Work Hypothesis:
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Page 85 and 86: 1992, p. XI). These researchers, wh
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Page 95 and 96: take different lengths of time to c
Page 97 and 98: example, should involve the same co
Page 99 and 100: As with all stages of BICS acquisit
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Page 103 and 104: different. Therefore, the social di
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Page 111 and 112: that sociocultural processes have o
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Page 119 and 120: emember is that the fundamental goa
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Page 123 and 124: By focusing on the dialectic betwee
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Page 127 and 128: Daily Realities RecappedThe above v
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Page 133 and 134: Speakers communicate fluently, main
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Page 143 and 144: Article V.1 Assessment in ESL & Bil
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Page 149 and 150: Fourth, ESL and bilingual program s
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Page 153 and 154: Table 1Comparison of Recent Accultu
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Page 163 and 164: Riles, 1979; Jose P. v Ambac, 1983)
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