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4. Second language development creates an added dimension to instructional decision making.Instruction must reflect specific strategies designed to meet the needs of students who aredeveloping second language proficiency (Spener, 1991).5. Second language instruction must be organized to provide students the time, experiences andopportunities they need to fully develop language across a range of social and academic contexts.Rationale: Language is not learned for language's sake. It is a vehicle for thinking, forcommunication and for cultural transmission. Therefore, language is learned in the context ofthese experiences (Halliday, 1975).6. In order to develop bilingual academic proficiency, clear, separate, and meaning-enrichedcontexts for each language must be created during instructional time.7. Decisions regarding transition to formal second language reading and redesignations forprogram exit criteria cannot be made arbitrarily.Rationale: Predictors for academic success in English must be assessed developmentally. Amultifaceted approach that looks at primary language development, and English languageproficiency, as well as other predictors, should be followed (Nadeau and Miramontes, 1988).8. Direct oral language and comprehension support must accompany beginning English literacyand the expansion of English content instruction. (Nadeau and Miramontes, 1988).9. Instructional assessment must be based on the student's first and second language levels ratherthan on grade level or predetermined criteria. An appropriate assessment plan should addresslanguage and literacy development as well as content knowledge.10. Parents and the community need to play a major role in the learning and schooling of theirchildren.Rationale: Academic achievement is known to improve when families are involved in theirchildren's education (Brandt, 1989).11. Instruction must be organized to help students understand and respect themselves and theirown culture as well as the culture of the broader society. Planned cross-cultural interactions arean essential component of programs for all students.12. Sociocultural factors and the political context must be considered in making decisionsregarding every aspect of program planning.Rationale: Sociocultural factors such as language status, socioeconomic level, and teacherexpectations can have a direct impact on educational opportunities, the development ofbilingualism, and student achievement (McDermott, 1976).13. Teachers are decision makers, and as part of a learning community they are responsible forall aspects of the instructional program for linguistically diverse students.© Basic Premises, Miramontes, Nadeau and Commins, 2000.Identifiable Reform PracticesDrawing from the author's experiences with a sustained reform effort, and current research, it isapparent that the issue of reform must be discussed without using the word replication! So muchof the experience and research in reform, thus far, tells us that the process is unique to eachsetting. In fact, if there is one overriding principle, it is that systemic reform proceeds from theroots of the system and continually affects the entire system. In our anxiety to push the reformscale up, the tendency is to revert to recipes, school improvement notions and prescriptions.However, it is possible to avoid prescriptions as we recognize parameters for reform in educationthat might guide us through the process of change. The process is holistic. The parameters are tobe viewed as working together. No one parameter standing alone constitutes a reform process.© 2008 Dr. Catherine CollierAll Rights Reserved38
Following are a description and discussion of some broad parameters that have evolved from theauthor's own experience with a sustained reform effort, and from her experience in working withother educators involved with successful school innovations around the country. These include:decision making, teaching and learning, organization, assessment and accountability. Anexample of each practice from the author's experience at Linda Vista School is presented tocontextualize each parameter.Decision makingIn the decision making process of a change effort, the school organization is inquiry-based.Members of the school community are involved in continued inquiry, questioning and selfassessment.In this system, conflict resolution is healthy, but most discussions are about students,not about the needs of adults. However, the growth of students as well as of the adults is seen asdevelopmental. Both must be taken from where they are in a process of continuous growth.Governance in this organization means that all stakeholders are involved, and not merely byrepresentation. Involvement signifies not just power shifts, but a substantive investment in allaspects of the change process. There are very few hierarchies in this system; thus, parents,classified staff, and teaching staff think and talk about curriculum, instruction and otherimportant issues related to school change.After a thorough process of discussion and inquiry, decisions are made through consensus. It isnot a linear endeavor, but one that requires constant inquiry, assessment and decision making.Members of the reform organization make their decisions in cross-collaborative teams, not onlywithin their own cohort groups. Primary teachers will meet with upper-level teachers, classifiedstaff with teachers, parents and business partners with each of these groups.ExampleThe governance structure at Linda Vista school evolved from an established vision and from thecreation of an innovative program whose primary purpose was to benefit children. Theexperience begets the process. That is, by focusing on students and by jumping in full force,people learned by doing. The infrastructure and programs needed to support the reform effortevolved from the collaborative experience of creating new solutions.The following is an example of the inquiry process established at this school: A schoolwideportfolio assessment process had been established by the fourth year into the restructuring. Astaff development day brought the entire staff together to participate in a protocol that requiredthe teachers to form groups throughout the day to analyze the student portfolios across levels.Discussions were held related to the examination of student work, adjustments in the anchorpapers, and revisions of the rubrics the staff had previously developed. Classified staff acted asreflectors during each session providing feedback to the teachers regarding both content andprocesses. This activity exemplifies a decision making process that achieved not only a trustinginvolvement of all staff, but also a focus on accountability and improvement for the sake of thestudents. Ultimately, parents were also involved in these activities, but as stated earlier, becausethese mostly non-English speaking parents were unfamiliar with this level of decision making, adevelopmental approach was taken until they felt comfortable and competent in suchdiscussions. Learning is a developmental process for adults as well as children.Teaching and learningFundamental change in how teaching and learning are conceptualized is apparent in aprogressive organization. The learner is at the center of the process and is held accountable, butthis accountability is born out of an environment that asks students to continually assess theirown progress. Standards for achievement are apparent to students at all times. The curriculum© 2008 Dr. Catherine CollierAll Rights Reserved39
Page 2 and 3: "Those who arrive by age 12 or 13 m
Page 5: Article I.2 Are Signed Languages "R
Page 8 and 9: Biological analyses of the status o
Page 10 and 11: and beyond, speaking and signing ch
Page 12 and 13: Conclusion: Are Signed Languages Re
Page 14 and 15: Article I.3 The Interpreter: Has a
Page 16 and 17: A few weeks earlier, I had called F
Page 18 and 19: “We struggled even getting to the
Page 20 and 21: herself by strapping a cassette rec
Page 22 and 23: In 1998, after nine years as the ch
Page 24 and 25: momentary burst of excitement that
Page 26 and 27: can shape core grammar. Because the
Page 28 and 29: The authors compared animal and hum
Page 30 and 31: monkey moved. He followed it with h
Page 32 and 33: delight, fear, laughter, and surpri
Page 34 and 35: Piipaío in a hut: Pirahã huts typ
Page 36 and 37: LEP students, and equitable organiz
Page 41 and 42: curriculum or "teaching to the test
Page 43 and 44: portfolio work was scanned and stor
Page 45 and 46: experiences of many groups of stude
Page 47 and 48: While not disagreeing that interpre
Page 49 and 50: sound educational practice, however
Page 51 and 52: arises from the efforts to abstract
Page 53 and 54: Article II.2 Cross-Cultural Communi
Page 55 and 56: males who can serve as positive rol
Page 57 and 58: Understanding another culture is a
Page 59 and 60: Pets and AnimalsWhich animals are v
Page 61 and 62: to teach standard English is reflec
Page 63 and 64: Asking personal questions of a pers
Page 65 and 66: Using Cross Cultural Communication
Page 67 and 68: Why Do Nonstandard English-Speaking
Page 69 and 70: Before beginning to teach standard
Page 71 and 72: • Negative attitudes toward low p
Page 73 and 74: New standardized tests and assessme
Page 75 and 76: Each of the behaviors listed above
Page 77 and 78: Article II.3 Hard Work Hypothesis:
Page 79 and 80: each point higher in SES, students
Page 81 and 82: This case does not provide strong s
Page 83 and 84: Article II.4 Language Acquisition a
Page 85 and 86: 1992, p. XI). These researchers, wh
Page 87 and 88: comprehend a word within a specific
Page 89 and 90:
more to the truthfulness of the chi
Page 91 and 92:
This idea of “semilingualism” c
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Article III.1 A Brief Description o
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take different lengths of time to c
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example, should involve the same co
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As with all stages of BICS acquisit
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Assessment techniques at stage 3 ca
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different. Therefore, the social di
Page 105:
integrative motivation. Basically,
Page 109 and 110:
(Ellis, 1985; Hakuta, 1986). Howeve
Page 111 and 112:
that sociocultural processes have o
Page 113 and 114:
Article III.3 How Children Acquire
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phonetic units (unique to signed la
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Article III.4 Toward a Sociocultura
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emember is that the fundamental goa
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The best practices models can be th
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By focusing on the dialectic betwee
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intergenerational wisdom shared by
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Daily Realities RecappedThe above v
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traditions. At a time in our histor
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We will now look at two examples of
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Speakers communicate fluently, main
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question the effects of such attitu
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Article IV.3 Culture Change: Effect
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and psychological characteristics o
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Contraryto what wewere expecting, t
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Article V.1 Assessment in ESL & Bil
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vocabulary does the student lack?Is
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whether they are LEP and to provide
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Fourth, ESL and bilingual program s
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competent reader/writer. All versio
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Table 1Comparison of Recent Accultu
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unilinear model, which measures the
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an English-only instructional progr
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Article V.3 Assessment of English L
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8. Change answers only for a very g
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Riles, 1979; Jose P. v Ambac, 1983)
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proficiency is often underestimated
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Finally, when second language reade
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for their decisions, noting issues
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As mentioned above, when the transi
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ather than generic adjectives and t
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their imagined points of view. Ther
Page 177 and 178:
English texts and demonstrate progr
Page 179:
using inter-district teams). In the
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