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meaning and the scorer’s ability to interpret meaning. Characteristic transitional languagefeatures such as phonological and syntactical evidence of Spanish language influence, semanticconfusion, limited vocabulary, and limited variety in sentence structure appeared as expected.Two of these features, phonology and semantics, are discussed below.Phonological featuresPhonological indicators of the influence of Spanish appeared frequently. Spelling patterns suchas writing “starbing” for starving, “kip” for keep,” slipping” for sleeping, “mit” for meet, “veri”for very, “way” for why, “many” for money, “nating” for nothing, and “so posto” for supposedto, reflect the orthographic influence of Spanish, particularly in the vowel substitutions.Other spelling patterns such as promus/promise, humpbell/humble, and concidaret/consideratereflect the students’ attempts to sound out words in English using a one-to-one match betweensound and symbol, a strategy that works well in Spanish but causes problems when applied toEnglish, given the inconsistency of English orthography. Not only the inconsistency of Englishorthography but also the variations in how similar sounds are represented between the twolanguages pose problems for Spanish readers. For example, the /h/ sound in English can berepresented in Spanish by the letters “g,” when followed by “e” and “i,” and “j.”The following examples, taken from responses to several items, illustrate these phonologicalpatterns as they occurred in connected text:‣ “He geib ibriting hi had hi dident kip nating” [He gave everything he had. He didn’t keepnothing];‣ “I help some homeless people the was slipping in thee strits” [I help some homeless peoplethey was sleeping in the streets.];‣ “Yo yahto knoe way I dont gib many bicas wen I diden hab many they !deden Help my!”[You have to know why I don’t give money because when I didn’t have money they didn’t helpme!];‣ “!Stil you so posto gib many the piople in this vilig ar yor famali!” [Still, you supposed togive money the people in this village are your family!].When numerous errors such as these occurred within connected text, interpretation was ofteninitially difficult for the scorers. However, when scorers read the papers aloud and could hearthe Spanish language influence as reflected in the students’ approximations of English words, theeffect of phonological variations on meaning was reduced. This supports the earlier finding thathaving knowledgeable, bilingual scorers was essential to equitable assessment of students’reading/writing abilities.SemanticsAt the semantic level, vocabulary limitations and confusions appeared in three commonly seenpatterns: (a) the use of phrases in lieu of a single adjective;(b) the frequent use of nonspecificvocabulary such as “nice,” “good,” and “bad”; and (c) incorrect use of word forms.Phrase substitutions appeared primarily in responses to item 1 of one reading passage and item 2of another, which asked for descriptions of character traits. In describing the main characters, forexample, phrases such as “do not do good to beggars” and “not nice to poor people” appeared inplace of single adjectives such as “mean” or “stingy” and “gives things to homeless” or “helpsthem live” instead of adjectives such as “generous” or “helpful.”Interestingly, these phrases often suggested a higher level of text comprehension than did singleadjectives because they indicated the students had not simply searched the text for words to fillin the blank but rather understood what the characters’ actions conveyed.Finding 2: The Role of Bilingual Scorers© 2008 Dr. Catherine CollierAll Rights Reserved170
As mentioned above, when the transition students took the district PBA, the English-only scorershad difficulty scoring the tests because of their unfamiliarity with transition students’ writing. Inthis case the bilingual scorers were able to interpret unconventional responses based on theirknowledge of the second language acquisition process. In their evaluation of test responses, theywere able to consider how Spanish influenced a student’s understanding and use of Englishorthography, syntax, and vocabulary. Because the test assessed reading comprehension and notwriting, it was critical that scorers were able to see beyond problems in form to the underlyingcontent students were communicating. Although we did not have a control group of English-onlyscorers, we believe the examples below show the importance of bilingual scorers for accuratetest interpretation.Certainly, teachers who do not know the phonological and orthographic rules of Spanish cannotbe expected to infer children’s intentions in choosing certain spelling patterns, and hence, thetarget words they may be aiming for(Fashola, Drum, Mayer, & Kang, 1996). Nor can they beexpected to disentangle syntax that makes sense from the perspective of another language withwhich they are unfamiliar.As demonstrated above, the influence of Spanish was evident at several levels of language formand content. It was at the semantic level, however, that translations from Spanish to Englishcould have caused potential misinterpretation of student responses. For example, one studentwrote, “I like wasting money on poor people.” As several bilingual scorers recognized, thisvocabulary usage suggests that the student translated his/her response from the Spanish“gastar,” which can mean either to spend or to waste. The student almost surely meant to say, “Ilike spending money on poor people,” which would be more in keeping with the intendedresponse to the question.Another example of the semantic influence of Spanish in this item occurred when a studentbegan a dialogue by having one character try to persuade another to give some money to thepoor. After getting nowhere trying to convince her to be more generous, the student writes thatthe first character says, “I think no one can change you. Of your form your act.”Again, an English-only teacher scoring the test might wonder what “of your form your act”really means. A bilingual scorer, however, might realize the student is most likely translating thenotion of “manera de ser” or “form of being,” which refers to character traits, not transitorybehavior. From this perspective, it is clear that the student was able to take two points of viewand sustain them through a dialogue, demonstrating a well-developed sense of character.On another item that asked students to describe character traits, one student argued that the poorbeggar woman “should be shy for that.” This word usage suggests that the student wastranslating from the Spanish word vergüenza, which means to be embarrassed or ashamed aswell as to be shy. The student most likely wanted to say “She should be ashamed of herself forbegging.” These answers and many others like them could have been misinterpreted if thescorers had not been aware of the Spanish equivalents that were implied by the students’answers.There was, of course, a relationship between form and meaning and many of the discussionsamong scorers revolved around how to score consistently and fairly for meaning rather thanform. The scorers recognized that students who had more control over form were able to expresstheir meaning more clearly, especially in items that required extended responses. In looking attext processing patterns suggested by the nature of the students’ answers, the researchers’ itemanalysis built on the effort to interpret meaning that the scorers demonstrated.Finding 3: Comprehension of English Texts© 2008 Dr. Catherine CollierAll Rights Reserved171
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"Those who arrive by age 12 or 13 m
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Article I.2 Are Signed Languages "R
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Biological analyses of the status o
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and beyond, speaking and signing ch
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Conclusion: Are Signed Languages Re
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Article I.3 The Interpreter: Has a
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A few weeks earlier, I had called F
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“We struggled even getting to the
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herself by strapping a cassette rec
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In 1998, after nine years as the ch
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momentary burst of excitement that
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can shape core grammar. Because the
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The authors compared animal and hum
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monkey moved. He followed it with h
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delight, fear, laughter, and surpri
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Piipaío in a hut: Pirahã huts typ
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LEP students, and equitable organiz
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4. Second language development crea
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curriculum or "teaching to the test
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portfolio work was scanned and stor
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experiences of many groups of stude
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While not disagreeing that interpre
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sound educational practice, however
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arises from the efforts to abstract
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Article II.2 Cross-Cultural Communi
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males who can serve as positive rol
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Understanding another culture is a
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Pets and AnimalsWhich animals are v
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to teach standard English is reflec
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Asking personal questions of a pers
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Using Cross Cultural Communication
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Why Do Nonstandard English-Speaking
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Before beginning to teach standard
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• Negative attitudes toward low p
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New standardized tests and assessme
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Each of the behaviors listed above
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Article II.3 Hard Work Hypothesis:
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each point higher in SES, students
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This case does not provide strong s
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Article II.4 Language Acquisition a
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1992, p. XI). These researchers, wh
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comprehend a word within a specific
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more to the truthfulness of the chi
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This idea of “semilingualism” c
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Article III.1 A Brief Description o
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take different lengths of time to c
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example, should involve the same co
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As with all stages of BICS acquisit
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Assessment techniques at stage 3 ca
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different. Therefore, the social di
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integrative motivation. Basically,
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(Ellis, 1985; Hakuta, 1986). Howeve
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that sociocultural processes have o
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Article III.3 How Children Acquire
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phonetic units (unique to signed la
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Article III.4 Toward a Sociocultura
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