Art Un ticle I.1 ited Sta In the ates News - Woodring College of ...

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sees his father coming into the room and spontaneously looks at him and says /dada/, and inaddition, has done this before in a similar context, then there is a good likelihood that for him,/dada/ is now a word that means “Daddy.”For Joey to do this, what must he know and be able to do? He must have a variety of linguistic,cognitive, social, and perceptual competencies. It is amazing to consider all that a child must becapable of to produce even one real word. This is as true for the child acquiring a secondlanguage as it is for her first.Linguistically, Joey has already developed quite a bit of knowledge about the phonology of hisfirst language. Studies have indicated that within the first year of life, children have alreadylearned what sounds and sound combinations are possible in their native language. Using theexample presented in the beginning of this chapter, native-English speaking infants learn that aword cannot start with “mb.” Joey has also learned how to produce a variety of sounds correctlyin English. Although his pronunciation is not adult-like, it is well-enough developed that manyearly words are grossly intelligible.Joey has also started understanding how language functions. Although first words can assume avariety of grammatical functions, young children have at least a basic understanding of what aword is and what different functions they can perform. Joey also understands the meaning ofvarious words, even though his understanding may not be exactly like that of an adult. To at leastsome extent then, Joey understands the words “mama” and “daddy.”In addition to understanding the early words that he produces, Joey understands their underlyingconcepts. To identify a mother, Joey has to understand what a mother is. His understanding ofthis concept, again, may not be exactly like that of an adult (he may conceive of a mother as anyfemale adult caregiver rather than one unique individual) but he clearly does have some idea.This means that Joey can also differentiate between individuals and can typically differentiatebetween genders and age groups. Joey must be able to understand a lot of what goes on aroundhim and differentiate and interpret relationships between objects, actions, sounds and people inhis environment.To produce one word, a child must also have acquire quite a bit of social and cultural knowledge.Words have social functions - they can be used to label, request, greet, query, and deny, to namejust a few. Therefore, by saying “mama”, Joey demonstrates his knowledge about the socialfunctions of language and his understanding of social relationships. He knows that words are tobe used interactively with others and he knows when and how to initiate and continuecommunicative interactions. He knows how to take conversational turns and he expects thatothers will respond to him in specific ways.Joey must have some useful auditory capabilities if he is producing his first words orally.Although deaf and severely hearing impaired children do begin to babble, they stop doing soaround the age of six months. Therefore, production of oral speech is dependent of the ability tohear. Joey is also able to process auditory input. He can distinguish between human speech andenvironmental sounds. Visual acuity is not necessary to the development of oral language,however, the language development of blind children has been studied and found to be affectedby their blindness. Clearly, children can do and know a lot, even before they ever produce theirfirst words.Language comprehension.What does it mean to understand a word? Language comprehension is not an all or nonephenomena. This idea is important for educators to understand. Children may be able to“comprehend” a word or phrase in some contexts and not in others. Children may first© 2008 Dr. Catherine CollierAll Rights Reserved86
comprehend a word within a specific routine or context (such as “jacket” during a gettingdressed for going outside routine) and with an accompanying gesture or linguistic cue (such aspointing to or naming an item using known words, such as “doggie book”). We can say a childreally understands a word when she is able to follow a direction or identify an item, when theitem(s) involved are not present and the context is not routine. For example, a child demonstratessome amount of comprehension when she puts her shoes on after being asked to during adressing routine. She demonstrates greater comprehension when she is asked to “show me howyou put your shoes on” during a non-dressing situation, such as play testing. With secondlanguage learners, we must be careful that we do not either over- or under-estimate theirreceptive language abilities by failing to analyze the linguistic, social, situational, and/or gesturalcontext of comprehension.The process of language acquisition.Language acquisition does not progress randomly. Although there is significant individualvariation, children appear to acquire language in a fairly systematic fashion. The sequence ofacquisition of syntax and morphology, the manner in which these develop, and the developmentof phonology all appear to proceed in a somewhat consistent and systematic fashion.Evidence for the biological foundation of grammatical acquisition came with the discovery thatgrammatical morpheme acquisition appears to progress in an orderly fashion (Brown, 1973).Brown observed the grammatical development of three children, Adam, Eve and Sarah, over aperiod of several years and discovered that the order of appearance of the first 14 grammaticalmorphemes was the same for all three children. Table 6-1 lists these morphemes in their order ofappearance. Another classic study also found striking similarities in the sequence ofmorphological acquisition among native-English speaking children (deVilliers & deVilliers,1973).Figure 6-1Brown’s first 14 Morphemespresent progressive -ing (without auxiliary)“in”“on”regular plural –sirregular pastpossessive – suncontractible copula (to be as main verb)articlesregular past –edregular 3 rd personirregular 3 rd personuncontractible auxiliarycontractible copulacontractible auxiliaryIn addition to determining the sequence of acquisition of grammatical morphemes in English, theresearch by Brown (1973) and deVilliers and deVilliers (1973) was also important inestablishing parameters for when these morphemes should appear, in terms of stage of language© 2008 Dr. Catherine CollierAll Rights Reserved87
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"Those who arrive by age 12 or 13 m
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Article I.2 Are Signed Languages "R
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Biological analyses of the status o
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and beyond, speaking and signing ch
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Conclusion: Are Signed Languages Re
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Article I.3 The Interpreter: Has a
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A few weeks earlier, I had called F
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“We struggled even getting to the
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herself by strapping a cassette rec
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In 1998, after nine years as the ch
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momentary burst of excitement that
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can shape core grammar. Because the
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The authors compared animal and hum
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monkey moved. He followed it with h
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delight, fear, laughter, and surpri
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Piipaío in a hut: Pirahã huts typ
Page 36 and 37: LEP students, and equitable organiz
Page 38 and 39: 4. Second language development crea
Page 41 and 42: curriculum or "teaching to the test
Page 43 and 44: portfolio work was scanned and stor
Page 45 and 46: experiences of many groups of stude
Page 47 and 48: While not disagreeing that interpre
Page 49 and 50: sound educational practice, however
Page 51 and 52: arises from the efforts to abstract
Page 53 and 54: Article II.2 Cross-Cultural Communi
Page 55 and 56: males who can serve as positive rol
Page 57 and 58: Understanding another culture is a
Page 59 and 60: Pets and AnimalsWhich animals are v
Page 61 and 62: to teach standard English is reflec
Page 63 and 64: Asking personal questions of a pers
Page 65 and 66: Using Cross Cultural Communication
Page 67 and 68: Why Do Nonstandard English-Speaking
Page 69 and 70: Before beginning to teach standard
Page 71 and 72: • Negative attitudes toward low p
Page 73 and 74: New standardized tests and assessme
Page 75 and 76: Each of the behaviors listed above
Page 77 and 78: Article II.3 Hard Work Hypothesis:
Page 79 and 80: each point higher in SES, students
Page 81 and 82: This case does not provide strong s
Page 83 and 84: Article II.4 Language Acquisition a
Page 85: 1992, p. XI). These researchers, wh
Page 89 and 90: more to the truthfulness of the chi
Page 91 and 92: This idea of “semilingualism” c
Page 93 and 94: Article III.1 A Brief Description o
Page 95 and 96: take different lengths of time to c
Page 97 and 98: example, should involve the same co
Page 99 and 100: As with all stages of BICS acquisit
Page 101 and 102: Assessment techniques at stage 3 ca
Page 103 and 104: different. Therefore, the social di
Page 105: integrative motivation. Basically,
Page 109 and 110: (Ellis, 1985; Hakuta, 1986). Howeve
Page 111 and 112: that sociocultural processes have o
Page 113 and 114: Article III.3 How Children Acquire
Page 115 and 116: phonetic units (unique to signed la
Page 117 and 118: Article III.4 Toward a Sociocultura
Page 119 and 120: emember is that the fundamental goa
Page 121 and 122: The best practices models can be th
Page 123 and 124: By focusing on the dialectic betwee
Page 125 and 126: intergenerational wisdom shared by
Page 127 and 128: Daily Realities RecappedThe above v
Page 129 and 130: traditions. At a time in our histor
Page 131 and 132: We will now look at two examples of
Page 133 and 134: Speakers communicate fluently, main
Page 135 and 136: question the effects of such attitu
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Article IV.3 Culture Change: Effect
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and psychological characteristics o
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Contraryto what wewere expecting, t
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Article V.1 Assessment in ESL & Bil
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vocabulary does the student lack?Is
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whether they are LEP and to provide
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Fourth, ESL and bilingual program s
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competent reader/writer. All versio
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Table 1Comparison of Recent Accultu
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unilinear model, which measures the
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an English-only instructional progr
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Article V.3 Assessment of English L
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8. Change answers only for a very g
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Riles, 1979; Jose P. v Ambac, 1983)
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proficiency is often underestimated
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Finally, when second language reade
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for their decisions, noting issues
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As mentioned above, when the transi
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ather than generic adjectives and t
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their imagined points of view. Ther
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English texts and demonstrate progr
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using inter-district teams). In the
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