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What Does This Mean for Students with Exceptionalities?To understand how all of this information applies to students with or suspected as havingdisabilities, we now return to the fallacies introduced at the beginning of this chapter.1) Fallacy: Students with exceptionalities cannot learn two (or more) languages.The reality is that many CLD with disabilities must learn a second language. If a child withdisabilities speaks a home language other than English, she must acquire a second language toparticipate in the school environment. Although research does suggest that some children mayacquire a second language more slowly, especially if they exhibited language difficulties in theirnative language (Kessler, 1984), this should not dissuade educators from assisting their students’second language acquisition as much as possible. Therefore, the real question becomes, shouldthe language of instruction for CLD students with disabilities be the student’s first or secondlanguage. Studies suggest that, just as for students without disabilities, a second language is bestacquired from a firm and well-developed first language foundation (Perozzi, 1985; Perozzi &Sanchez, 1992). This research suggests that grammatical forms are most quickly and accuratelyacquired in English when they have first been taught in the student’s native language. Thissupports a bilingual approach to special education with CLD students.2) Fallacy: Parents of CLD students, with and without exceptionalities, should speak with theirchildren at home in English.This advice, although popular, is incorrect for several reasons. As discussed above, students willbest acquire a second language if their first language is well-established. Second, asking parentswho may not be able to provide an adequate language model in English to restrict the use of theirmore proficient language is absurd. Parents will neither be able to stimulate their child’slanguage development nor will they be able to communicate easily for social purposes with theirchild. Wong Fillmore (1991b, p. 343) makes the following poignant observation:When parents are unable to talk to their children, they cannot easily convey to them their values,beliefs, understandings, or wisdom about how to cope with their experiences. They cannot teachthem about the meaning of work, or about personal responsibility, or what it means to be a moralor ethical person in a world with too many choices and too few guideposts to follow. What is lostare the bits of advice, the consejos parents should be able to offer children in their everydayinteractions with them. Talk is a crucial link between parents and children: It is how parentsimpart their cultures to their children and enable them to become the kind of men and womenthey want them to be. When parents lose the means for socializing and influencing their children,rifts develop and families lose the intimacy that comes from shared beliefs and understandings.3) Fallacy: Acquiring more than one language is “difficult” and can lead to academic problems.Cummins’ additive bilingualism enrichment principle and the research on the cognitive benefitsof bilingualism clearly suggest that bilingualism is not a burden for students. In fact, in manyparts of the world, it is a common part of daily life. When fluently bilingual parents areencouraged to raise their children monolingually, as in the case of a 1995 child custody case inwhich Texas State District Judge, Samuel C. Kaiser equated raising the child of a bilingualmother in a Spanish-speaking home as tantamount to child abuse, beliefs about bilingualism as acognitive deficit are reinforced. Regardless of the cognitive benefits, bilingualism is of socialbenefit in our global village and can only have positive outcomes when students leave school andseek employment.4) Fallacy: Some bilingual students don’t speak any language to a real extent and are“semilingual.”© 2008 Dr. Catherine CollierAll Rights Reserved90
This idea of “semilingualism” can be compelling when we do not understand languageacquisition. Educators may confuse students undergoing a “silent period” as demonstrating alack of ability to communicate. Remember all that a child has to know to be able to say even oneword in his first language. Even those children who demonstrate little expressive language in theschool environment (in their first or second language) bring with them a wealth of informationabout the phonology, morphology, syntax, lexicon, and language use patterns of their nativelanguage. Additionally, standardized tests developed based on standard dialects in English andthe student’s native language may fail to identify their communicative competence.There are three important concepts that relate to this issue of language competence in bilingualchildren: language attrition, semilingualism, and code switching. Language attrition is arecognized phenomena in which an individual loses all or part of her native languagecompetence. It can happen naturally as a result of immigration and the lack of opportunities tocommunicate in a particular language. For adults who have immigrated without their families toa new country and rarely return for visits, this may occur over time. It can also happen to youngchildren who are exposed to a new language at school before their first language has been wellestablished or where there is a significant discrepancy between the social prestige of the twolanguages. Language attrition is a common phenomena in the United States among children fromdiscriminated and dominated ethnic groups, such as Hispanics. The preliminary results of theNational Association for Bilingual Education (NABE) No-Cost Study on Families indicate thatthe early exposure to English, by enrollment of non-English background children in preschoolprograms that are not conducted exclusively in the children’s home language, results in a shift inuse of the native language at home and leads to language attrition (Wong Fillmore, 1991b).Merino (1982) found that among the native-Spanish speaking children in her research project,language attrition occurred by the fourth grade, and sometimes even earlier. She also found thatlanguage attrition initially affects later developing skills and abilities. The dynamic relationshipbetween increasing second language proficiency and first language loss can result in a temporarystage in which the child appears limited in both languages.The problem with applying the label of “semilingualism” to these children is twofold: 1) thisterm suggests a difficulty in acquiring language and does not recognize that children may havelost language skills they once possessed, and 2) this term implies a resultant cognitive deficit.Although bilingual children from non-dominant culture backgrounds do have a higherpercentage of below average academic performance, there is no evidence that this stems from acognitive problem brought about by their bilingualism. Inappropriate academic programs andhome-school incongruities have been suggested as reasons for these academic problems. In fact,one of the major problems facing our school system today is the lowered academic achievementof all culturally different youth, regardless of whether they speak a home language other thanEnglish or not.Sometimes the term semilingual is applied because educators observe students speaking whatthey consider to be a mixture of two languages. However, research has indicated that what mayappear to a monolingual speaker to be a random hodgepodge of two different languages is in facta systematic and socially governed interplay between two separate and well-developed linguisticsystems (Genishi, 1981). In fact, that students are able to switch back and forth between twodistinct codes is a sign of linguistic maturity. Code-switching refers to “the use of two or morelinguistic varieties in the same conversation or interaction” (Scotton & Ury, 1977, p. 5). This caninvolve switching between social styles or registers or between different languages. Most peoplecode switch as a regular part of social interactions, but we don’t even recognize what we are© 2008 Dr. Catherine CollierAll Rights Reserved91
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"Those who arrive by age 12 or 13 m
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Article I.2 Are Signed Languages "R
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Biological analyses of the status o
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and beyond, speaking and signing ch
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Conclusion: Are Signed Languages Re
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Article I.3 The Interpreter: Has a
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A few weeks earlier, I had called F
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“We struggled even getting to the
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herself by strapping a cassette rec
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In 1998, after nine years as the ch
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momentary burst of excitement that
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can shape core grammar. Because the
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The authors compared animal and hum
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monkey moved. He followed it with h
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delight, fear, laughter, and surpri
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Piipaío in a hut: Pirahã huts typ
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LEP students, and equitable organiz
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4. Second language development crea
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Page 43 and 44: portfolio work was scanned and stor
Page 45 and 46: experiences of many groups of stude
Page 47 and 48: While not disagreeing that interpre
Page 49 and 50: sound educational practice, however
Page 51 and 52: arises from the efforts to abstract
Page 53 and 54: Article II.2 Cross-Cultural Communi
Page 55 and 56: males who can serve as positive rol
Page 57 and 58: Understanding another culture is a
Page 59 and 60: Pets and AnimalsWhich animals are v
Page 61 and 62: to teach standard English is reflec
Page 63 and 64: Asking personal questions of a pers
Page 65 and 66: Using Cross Cultural Communication
Page 67 and 68: Why Do Nonstandard English-Speaking
Page 69 and 70: Before beginning to teach standard
Page 71 and 72: • Negative attitudes toward low p
Page 73 and 74: New standardized tests and assessme
Page 75 and 76: Each of the behaviors listed above
Page 77 and 78: Article II.3 Hard Work Hypothesis:
Page 79 and 80: each point higher in SES, students
Page 81 and 82: This case does not provide strong s
Page 83 and 84: Article II.4 Language Acquisition a
Page 85 and 86: 1992, p. XI). These researchers, wh
Page 87 and 88: comprehend a word within a specific
Page 89: more to the truthfulness of the chi
Page 93 and 94: Article III.1 A Brief Description o
Page 95 and 96: take different lengths of time to c
Page 97 and 98: example, should involve the same co
Page 99 and 100: As with all stages of BICS acquisit
Page 101 and 102: Assessment techniques at stage 3 ca
Page 103 and 104: different. Therefore, the social di
Page 105: integrative motivation. Basically,
Page 109 and 110: (Ellis, 1985; Hakuta, 1986). Howeve
Page 111 and 112: that sociocultural processes have o
Page 113 and 114: Article III.3 How Children Acquire
Page 115 and 116: phonetic units (unique to signed la
Page 117 and 118: Article III.4 Toward a Sociocultura
Page 119 and 120: emember is that the fundamental goa
Page 121 and 122: The best practices models can be th
Page 123 and 124: By focusing on the dialectic betwee
Page 125 and 126: intergenerational wisdom shared by
Page 127 and 128: Daily Realities RecappedThe above v
Page 129 and 130: traditions. At a time in our histor
Page 131 and 132: We will now look at two examples of
Page 133 and 134: Speakers communicate fluently, main
Page 135 and 136: question the effects of such attitu
Page 137 and 138: Article IV.3 Culture Change: Effect
Page 139 and 140: and psychological characteristics o
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Contraryto what wewere expecting, t
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Article V.1 Assessment in ESL & Bil
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vocabulary does the student lack?Is
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whether they are LEP and to provide
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Fourth, ESL and bilingual program s
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competent reader/writer. All versio
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Table 1Comparison of Recent Accultu
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unilinear model, which measures the
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an English-only instructional progr
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Article V.3 Assessment of English L
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8. Change answers only for a very g
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Riles, 1979; Jose P. v Ambac, 1983)
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proficiency is often underestimated
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Finally, when second language reade
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for their decisions, noting issues
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As mentioned above, when the transi
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ather than generic adjectives and t
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their imagined points of view. Ther
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English texts and demonstrate progr
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using inter-district teams). In the
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