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a lack of speculation as a Navajo trait. Traditional Navajos rarely speculate about motives orpast or future happenings. They generally report exactly what they see and hear withoutinterpretation.In a study by Henry (1947) Hopi and Navajo children were asked to make up stories about a setof ambiguous pictures. The Navajos described what they saw and did not try to explain thepictured activity. The Hopi children explained what they thought the people were doing and whythey were doing it. They also volunteered what they thought had led up to the activity and whatmight happen in the future. This type of different view of reality has obvious implications in theuse of particular curriculum materials or instructional techniques.Many cultural elements or indicators are shared by different cultures, especially those in temporalor geographic proximity to one another. This sharing is frequently a result of the process ofculture change, a dynamic source of some elements within a particular culture at a particularpoint in time. Culture is dynamic and no two individual members of the cultural group shareexactly the same system of cultural knowledge. Social scientists all have a slightly differentview of culture, depending on their peculiar perspective. As used in this paper, culture is acognitive construct as defined by Goodenough (1957).(Culture is) whatever it is one has to know or believe in order to operate in amanner acceptable to its members. Culture is not a material phenomenon; it doesnot consist of things, behavior, or emotions. It is rather an organization of thesethings. It is the form of things that people have in mind, their models ofperceiving, relating, and otherwise interpreting them.As used in this paper, culture change is a type of adjustment to the presence of two (or more)cultures. Just as goods and services may be exchanged by the two cultures, so may values,languages, and behavior patterns. Padilla (1 980) proposes that theme are three stages of culturechange: contact, conflict, and adaptation, He states that any measurement of culture change mustconsider each of these three stages at both the group and individual level. Linton (I 940) statedthat directed and non-directed situations of contact, i.e., the purpose of the contact, must also beconsidered. The history, persistence, purpose of the contact, the nature of conflict andadaptations to this contact, as well as the individual's exposure to the second culture, interpersonaland intrapersonal conflicts, and personal adaptations, must all be considered.It is important to consider the nature, purpose, duration, and permanence of the contact. Forexample, less culture change may be expected when the purpose of the contact is mutuallydesired trade, as in the 19th century between the Tlingits and the British in SE Alaska, asopposed to the forced exchange between the Russians and Eskimos in SW Alaska during thesame time period.Where there is deliberate extermination of beliefs over a long period of time we find even greaterculture change. For example, the Moravian missionaries engaged in a systematic destruction ofYup'ik Eskimo culture. There is almost always some degree of resistance to change as mostcultural groups do not lightly give up valued practices, whether economic, religious, or communicative.This conflict may be manifested in many ways, whether as psychological stress orphysical aggression, but will always lead to some form of adaptation. Adaptation is in this sensea reduction of conflict and may take several forms.Another effect of culture change is acculturative stress. This stress is common though not inevitableduring culture change, Berry (1 970) stated that acculturative stress is characterized by deviantbehavior, psychosomatic symptoms and feelings of marginality, Berry also found thatvariations in stress and culture change patterns were dependent to some extent upon the cultural© 2008 Dr. Catherine CollierAll Rights Reserved138
and psychological characteristics of the culture group, and the degree and nature of previouscontact with culturally diverse groups. This type of stress has particular implications foreducators as the side effects look a lot like the indications of learning disabilities commonly usedto place children in special education classes.The influence of child rearing and training patterns is of special importance in the growth anddevelopment of children. Socialization and family interaction patterns are affected by culturechange in the same way that language, economic subsistence, and other cultural elements are.There is also an interactive effect among these elements in regard to the growth and developmentof children. There are effects upon their language, cognitive style, personality, and self concept.These are of concern in the child's development of his or her full potential and especially whenthe child may have special learning and behavior problems in the mainstream school system.In one study of Hispanic culture change, Szapocznik and Kurtines (1980) found that stress fromthe culture change process could result in emotional and substance abuse problems. Thisoccurred when family members adjusting to life in mainstream American culture did not integratetheir home culture and language with that of the mainstream community. Although livingin a community with two languages and cultures, both the parents and teenagers in the studyrejected one culture and tried to identify exclusively with only one culture. These families werecompared with families where parents and teenagers were bilingual and developed cross-culturalmethods of adapting to their new communities. The bilingual and cross-cultural families hadfewer incidents of substance abuse and dysfunctional interactions than the "monocultural'families.In summary, the differing culture change patterns of culturally and linguistically different childrenmust be taken into consideration in their assessment and instruction in mainstream schoolsand classrooms. The interactive effects of a particular child's culture change and the child'sspecial needs must be considered in developing appropriate educational programs. In the nextissue of Diversity, these special needs and the implications of culture and language change uponinstructional intervention will be addressed.© 2008 Dr. Catherine CollierAll Rights Reserved139
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"Those who arrive by age 12 or 13 m
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Article I.2 Are Signed Languages "R
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Biological analyses of the status o
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and beyond, speaking and signing ch
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Conclusion: Are Signed Languages Re
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Article I.3 The Interpreter: Has a
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A few weeks earlier, I had called F
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“We struggled even getting to the
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herself by strapping a cassette rec
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In 1998, after nine years as the ch
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momentary burst of excitement that
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can shape core grammar. Because the
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The authors compared animal and hum
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monkey moved. He followed it with h
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delight, fear, laughter, and surpri
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Piipaío in a hut: Pirahã huts typ
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LEP students, and equitable organiz
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4. Second language development crea
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curriculum or "teaching to the test
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portfolio work was scanned and stor
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experiences of many groups of stude
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While not disagreeing that interpre
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sound educational practice, however
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arises from the efforts to abstract
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Article II.2 Cross-Cultural Communi
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males who can serve as positive rol
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Understanding another culture is a
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Pets and AnimalsWhich animals are v
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to teach standard English is reflec
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Asking personal questions of a pers
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Using Cross Cultural Communication
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Why Do Nonstandard English-Speaking
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Before beginning to teach standard
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• Negative attitudes toward low p
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New standardized tests and assessme
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Each of the behaviors listed above
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Article II.3 Hard Work Hypothesis:
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each point higher in SES, students
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This case does not provide strong s
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Article II.4 Language Acquisition a
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1992, p. XI). These researchers, wh
Page 87 and 88: comprehend a word within a specific
Page 89 and 90: more to the truthfulness of the chi
Page 91 and 92: This idea of “semilingualism” c
Page 93 and 94: Article III.1 A Brief Description o
Page 95 and 96: take different lengths of time to c
Page 97 and 98: example, should involve the same co
Page 99 and 100: As with all stages of BICS acquisit
Page 101 and 102: Assessment techniques at stage 3 ca
Page 103 and 104: different. Therefore, the social di
Page 105: integrative motivation. Basically,
Page 109 and 110: (Ellis, 1985; Hakuta, 1986). Howeve
Page 111 and 112: that sociocultural processes have o
Page 113 and 114: Article III.3 How Children Acquire
Page 115 and 116: phonetic units (unique to signed la
Page 117 and 118: Article III.4 Toward a Sociocultura
Page 119 and 120: emember is that the fundamental goa
Page 121 and 122: The best practices models can be th
Page 123 and 124: By focusing on the dialectic betwee
Page 125 and 126: intergenerational wisdom shared by
Page 127 and 128: Daily Realities RecappedThe above v
Page 129 and 130: traditions. At a time in our histor
Page 131 and 132: We will now look at two examples of
Page 133 and 134: Speakers communicate fluently, main
Page 135 and 136: question the effects of such attitu
Page 137: Article IV.3 Culture Change: Effect
Page 141 and 142: Contraryto what wewere expecting, t
Page 143 and 144: Article V.1 Assessment in ESL & Bil
Page 145 and 146: vocabulary does the student lack?Is
Page 147 and 148: whether they are LEP and to provide
Page 149 and 150: Fourth, ESL and bilingual program s
Page 151 and 152: competent reader/writer. All versio
Page 153 and 154: Table 1Comparison of Recent Accultu
Page 155 and 156: unilinear model, which measures the
Page 157 and 158: an English-only instructional progr
Page 159 and 160: Article V.3 Assessment of English L
Page 161 and 162: 8. Change answers only for a very g
Page 163 and 164: Riles, 1979; Jose P. v Ambac, 1983)
Page 165 and 166: proficiency is often underestimated
Page 167 and 168: Finally, when second language reade
Page 169 and 170: for their decisions, noting issues
Page 171 and 172: As mentioned above, when the transi
Page 173 and 174: ather than generic adjectives and t
Page 175 and 176: their imagined points of view. Ther
Page 177 and 178: English texts and demonstrate progr
Page 179: using inter-district teams). In the
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