Art Un ticle I.1 ited Sta In the ates News - Woodring College of ...

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way of speaking a language. While all dialects of a given language are linguistically legitimate,some achieve social prestige. In literate, economically developed societies, the dialect spoken bythose with the most formal education, the highest socioeconomic status and the greatest degreeof political power tends to acquire the greatest social prestige. Typically, it becomes the standardfor the culture, for writing and for education. Standard dialects also provide a medium throughwhich persons from different linguistic backgrounds can communicate with one another. Socialand regional variations may exist within standard dialects as long as they conform to specifiedlinguistic rules, largely grammatical in nature. Standard English, therefore, should not beconsidered "Northern English" or "White English," since it is spoken, in one form or another, inall parts of the United States and by some members of all racial and cultural groups. At the otherend of the social spectrum, so called nonstandard dialects are generally spoken by the "havenots:" the powerless, the less educated, the less economically well off and the less sociallyprominent. While legitimate linguistically, these dialects tend to be unacceptable to the "haves"of society. In American English, nonstandard dialects exist within all racial, ethnic and regionalgroups ( see Table III ). Each dialect is a product of distinct social, historical, cultural andeducational factors. All are legitimate in that they represent the concepts, needs and intentions oftheir speakers.TABLE III Some Varieties of Nonstandard American EnglishAppalachian English"He just kept a begging and a crying and a wanting to go out." (He persisted in begging, cryingand wanting to leave.)Athabascan English (Alaska)"Most time we play games." (Most of the time we play games.)African American English Vernacular"He be scared, but I be brave." (He is usually scared, but l am usually brave.)General American Nonstandard English"don't nobody want none." (Nobody wants any.)Keaukaha English (Hawaii)"I no can place that name." (I cannot place that name.)New York City Nonstandard English"She's a good cook, your mother." (Your mother is a good cook.)Southern American Nonstandard English"I mon' rest." (I am going to rest.)Spanish Influenced English"Carol left yesterday. I think is coming back tomorrows." (Carol left yesterday. I think she iscoming back tomorrow.)For a variety of reasons, including negative public attitudes and inadequate teaching models,nonstandard English speakers often do not effectively learn standard English in school. Withoutcompetence in standard English, students will fail academically and face diminished career,social and life options. Many students who do learn standard English do so at a great price:devaluation or rejection of their home or community dialect. When competence in standardEnglish is coupled with rejection of one's own home or community dialect, it may lead to seriouspsychological and identity problems (Chambers, 1983). In the United States, the schools' failure© 2008 Dr. Catherine CollierAll Rights Reserved60
to teach standard English is reflected in the poor performance of nonstandard English speakerson achievement, aptitude and diagnostic tests. Perhaps the most alarming evidence of this failureis the low performance of nonstandard English speakers on tests used to place students inremedial or gifted programs. Virtually all of these tests presume competence in standard English(Oakland, 1977). Many African American children, usually from working class homes orcommunities, speak a nonstandard variety of English. This variety, often referred to as BlackEnglish Vernacular, is thought by many sociolinguists to reflect African influences on AmericanEnglish, and is reinforced by social isolation, segregation and group identity.Cultural Differences in DiscourseIn addition to differences in pronunciation, vocabulary and grammatical structures amongcultural groups, variations also exist in the rules for general discourse in oral communication,covering such specific acts as narratives and conversation. In communicating with one another,teachers and students naturally will follow the assumptions and rules governing discourse withintheir respective cultures. Discourse rules govern such aspects of communication as:• Opening or closing conversations;• Taking turns during conversations;• Interrupting;• Using silence as a communicative device;• Knowing appropriate topics of conversation;• Interjecting humor at appropriate times;• Using nonverbal behavior;• Expressing laughter as a communicative device;• Knowing the appropriate amount of speech to be used by participants; and• Sequencing of elements during discourse.With respect to narratives, Gee (1985) claims that story telling during sharing time in the earlyschool years helps to provide students the foundation for reading and writing instruction in latergrades. Both he and Michaels (1981) report that schools and teachers prefer linear, single topicstory telling, the style that is compatible with strategies encountered in reading and writingactivities. These topic centered stories are characterized by tightly structured sentences thatreflect on a single or small set of highly related topics. The speaker presumes little sharedknowledge with listeners. Topic centered stories, therefore, tend to be very explicit and containgreat detail, emphasizing more telling than showing. Topic centered stories are thought by someto be associated with the field independent cognitive style. I Gee and Michaels note further thatmany working class children, particularly those from oral cultures, tend to prefer a topicassociating narrative style. These story tellers presume a shared knowledge with the audience, domore showing than telling and imply linkages among a wide range of topics which need not bepresented in temporal sequence. Topic associating narrative style is thought by some to beassociated with the field dependent cognitive style. While both narrative styles providemeaningful ways for children to talk about their experiences and realities, research shows thatstudents who tell topic associating stories tend to be called on less and interrupted more oftenthan do children who tell topic centered stories (Michaels, 1981). They also tend to be wrongly© 2008 Dr. Catherine CollierAll Rights Reserved61
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"Those who arrive by age 12 or 13 m
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Article I.2 Are Signed Languages "R
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Biological analyses of the status o
Page 10 and 11: and beyond, speaking and signing ch
Page 12 and 13: Conclusion: Are Signed Languages Re
Page 14 and 15: Article I.3 The Interpreter: Has a
Page 16 and 17: A few weeks earlier, I had called F
Page 18 and 19: “We struggled even getting to the
Page 20 and 21: herself by strapping a cassette rec
Page 22 and 23: In 1998, after nine years as the ch
Page 24 and 25: momentary burst of excitement that
Page 26 and 27: can shape core grammar. Because the
Page 28 and 29: The authors compared animal and hum
Page 30 and 31: monkey moved. He followed it with h
Page 32 and 33: delight, fear, laughter, and surpri
Page 34 and 35: Piipaío in a hut: Pirahã huts typ
Page 36 and 37: LEP students, and equitable organiz
Page 38 and 39: 4. Second language development crea
Page 41 and 42: curriculum or "teaching to the test
Page 43 and 44: portfolio work was scanned and stor
Page 45 and 46: experiences of many groups of stude
Page 47 and 48: While not disagreeing that interpre
Page 49 and 50: sound educational practice, however
Page 51 and 52: arises from the efforts to abstract
Page 53 and 54: Article II.2 Cross-Cultural Communi
Page 55 and 56: males who can serve as positive rol
Page 57 and 58: Understanding another culture is a
Page 59: Pets and AnimalsWhich animals are v
Page 63 and 64: Asking personal questions of a pers
Page 65 and 66: Using Cross Cultural Communication
Page 67 and 68: Why Do Nonstandard English-Speaking
Page 69 and 70: Before beginning to teach standard
Page 71 and 72: • Negative attitudes toward low p
Page 73 and 74: New standardized tests and assessme
Page 75 and 76: Each of the behaviors listed above
Page 77 and 78: Article II.3 Hard Work Hypothesis:
Page 79 and 80: each point higher in SES, students
Page 81 and 82: This case does not provide strong s
Page 83 and 84: Article II.4 Language Acquisition a
Page 85 and 86: 1992, p. XI). These researchers, wh
Page 87 and 88: comprehend a word within a specific
Page 89 and 90: more to the truthfulness of the chi
Page 91 and 92: This idea of “semilingualism” c
Page 93 and 94: Article III.1 A Brief Description o
Page 95 and 96: take different lengths of time to c
Page 97 and 98: example, should involve the same co
Page 99 and 100: As with all stages of BICS acquisit
Page 101 and 102: Assessment techniques at stage 3 ca
Page 103 and 104: different. Therefore, the social di
Page 105: integrative motivation. Basically,
Page 109 and 110: (Ellis, 1985; Hakuta, 1986). Howeve
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that sociocultural processes have o
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Article III.3 How Children Acquire
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phonetic units (unique to signed la
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Article III.4 Toward a Sociocultura
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emember is that the fundamental goa
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The best practices models can be th
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By focusing on the dialectic betwee
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intergenerational wisdom shared by
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Daily Realities RecappedThe above v
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traditions. At a time in our histor
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We will now look at two examples of
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Speakers communicate fluently, main
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question the effects of such attitu
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Article IV.3 Culture Change: Effect
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and psychological characteristics o
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Contraryto what wewere expecting, t
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Article V.1 Assessment in ESL & Bil
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vocabulary does the student lack?Is
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whether they are LEP and to provide
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Fourth, ESL and bilingual program s
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competent reader/writer. All versio
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Table 1Comparison of Recent Accultu
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unilinear model, which measures the
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an English-only instructional progr
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Article V.3 Assessment of English L
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8. Change answers only for a very g
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Riles, 1979; Jose P. v Ambac, 1983)
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proficiency is often underestimated
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Finally, when second language reade
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for their decisions, noting issues
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As mentioned above, when the transi
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ather than generic adjectives and t
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their imagined points of view. Ther
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English texts and demonstrate progr
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using inter-district teams). In the
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