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Article IV.4 Culture Change: Effects on Children(Part II)In the last issue, Dr. Collier shared information about the process of culture change, focusing onhow it affects the children in various cultural communities. In this issue, she will continue thatdiscussion with the results of a research project. The goal of the project was to find out howculture changes influence the treatment of culturally and linguistically different children inpublic schools. The summary findings were: 1) in mainstream schools, these children arereferred to special education programs much more often than other children, and 2) thesechildren's referral and placement in special education programs was based on teachers'attitudes about what they perceived as learning and behavior problems.This study of five public school districts in Colorado in 1984 and 1985 examined the assessmentand instruction of culturally and linguistically diverse children. When identifying andresponding to children with special needs, what parts do culture change and teacher's attitudesplay? The study highlighted some important differences between those children referred tospecial education programs and those not referred. We also examined how we might predict achild's placement in a special education program by looking at these characteristics. Thechildren we studied were Latino/Chicano students enrolled in bilingual or English as a SecondLanguage programs. In the study, 49 percent of the children had been referred to specialeducation programs. Of those children, 55 percent were actually placed in special educationprograms.There were several major findings. Features of each student's education were evaluated, andonly one reliable way of predicting a child's referral and placement in special education wasfound. This was the teacher's level of concern about what they saw as learning and behaviorproblems. Groups of children with different levels of cultural adaptation and culture changecharacteristics were referred to special education programs at different rates. Placed childrenmore often came from schools with low minority enrollment. Those children who were referredto special education programs, but not placed, were the least culturally adapted and had thelowest achievement levels in all subjects.The schools participating in this study provided information on Latino/Chicano students randomlyselected from their K-6 bilingual and ESL programs. The students were compared on 15variables related to culture change and educational achievement. These features were selectedfrom cultural and linguistic factors, and also from education variables that are usually consideredin the placement of any child in special education.We wanted to look at these variables because prior research showed that children that had beenreferred or placed in a special education program should be much different from those that hadn'tbeen referred, especially in relation to achievement and ability. In previous studies, the culturaland linguistic differences between mainstream and minority students became an additional factorin whether or not a child was referred or placed in special education. In our study, however, allof the children were from the same cultural and linguistic background. As they were also fromthe same socioeconomic background and age range, it was expected that the children's linguisticand cultural characteristics would be more or less the same. In theory, we were expecting to findthat the differences between referred and nonreferred children would be in their educationalprofile, and not their cultural and linguistic profile.© 2008 Dr. Catherine CollierAll Rights Reserved140
Contraryto what wewere expecting, the educational profiles of thechildren referred to specialeducationand those not referredwere relatively the same. The difference wasin their culturalprofiles. There was also a strong link between certainculture change variables and educationvariables. Although "academic" concerns were cited as the primary reason for referral, theree wasno statistically significant difference in academic testt scores in any subject. There was ameaningful effect size between nonreferredand placedchildren inachievement scores. Thismeans that there was a great difference in their achievement, but it was not "statistically"significant.It became clear that the number of minority students enrolled in a school had a direct impact onstudents' educationalachievement. In our study, the nonreferred students that attended schoolswith highh minority enrollment achieved higher test scores than those 'students who attendedd lowminority enrollment schools.Some ofour results concerned all of the children in our study. All of the children with moreyears of bilingual instruction hadbetter educational achievement than children with less bilingualinstruction. Those who had spent more thanfour years in the U.S. consistently scored higher onacademicc testing, and those who had adapted culturally performed betteron educationalachievement.Prior research showed that whenminority enrollment ina school increases andwhere bilingualservices exist, the proportion of culturally and linguistically different children referred to specialeducationdecreases (Finn, 1982). Our research supported this finding, and affirmedthatbilinguall education improves educational achievement for all of these children.Why do these differential placements occur? Maybe when there are more minority studentsenrolled in a school, the quality of the alternative programs, like bilingual instruction, increases.These trends may also be related to the presence of role models and improved self-concepts,among other things. There is also the possibility that teachers with few minoritystudents intheirclasses refer the onesthey have to special education programs too often, and thatt teachers used toworking with many minority students resistreferring those with special learning and behavior© 2008 Dr. Catherine CollierAll Rights Reserved141
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"Those who arrive by age 12 or 13 m
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Article I.2 Are Signed Languages "R
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Biological analyses of the status o
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and beyond, speaking and signing ch
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Conclusion: Are Signed Languages Re
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Article I.3 The Interpreter: Has a
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A few weeks earlier, I had called F
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“We struggled even getting to the
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herself by strapping a cassette rec
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In 1998, after nine years as the ch
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momentary burst of excitement that
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can shape core grammar. Because the
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The authors compared animal and hum
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monkey moved. He followed it with h
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delight, fear, laughter, and surpri
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Piipaío in a hut: Pirahã huts typ
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LEP students, and equitable organiz
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4. Second language development crea
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curriculum or "teaching to the test
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portfolio work was scanned and stor
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experiences of many groups of stude
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While not disagreeing that interpre
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sound educational practice, however
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arises from the efforts to abstract
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Article II.2 Cross-Cultural Communi
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males who can serve as positive rol
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Understanding another culture is a
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Pets and AnimalsWhich animals are v
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to teach standard English is reflec
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Asking personal questions of a pers
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Using Cross Cultural Communication
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Why Do Nonstandard English-Speaking
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Before beginning to teach standard
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• Negative attitudes toward low p
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New standardized tests and assessme
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Each of the behaviors listed above
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Article II.3 Hard Work Hypothesis:
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each point higher in SES, students
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This case does not provide strong s
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Article II.4 Language Acquisition a
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1992, p. XI). These researchers, wh
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comprehend a word within a specific
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Page 91 and 92: This idea of “semilingualism” c
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Page 95 and 96: take different lengths of time to c
Page 97 and 98: example, should involve the same co
Page 99 and 100: As with all stages of BICS acquisit
Page 101 and 102: Assessment techniques at stage 3 ca
Page 103 and 104: different. Therefore, the social di
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Page 111 and 112: that sociocultural processes have o
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Page 117 and 118: Article III.4 Toward a Sociocultura
Page 119 and 120: emember is that the fundamental goa
Page 121 and 122: The best practices models can be th
Page 123 and 124: By focusing on the dialectic betwee
Page 125 and 126: intergenerational wisdom shared by
Page 127 and 128: Daily Realities RecappedThe above v
Page 129 and 130: traditions. At a time in our histor
Page 131 and 132: We will now look at two examples of
Page 133 and 134: Speakers communicate fluently, main
Page 135 and 136: question the effects of such attitu
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Page 145 and 146: vocabulary does the student lack?Is
Page 147 and 148: whether they are LEP and to provide
Page 149 and 150: Fourth, ESL and bilingual program s
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Page 153 and 154: Table 1Comparison of Recent Accultu
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Page 159 and 160: Article V.3 Assessment of English L
Page 161 and 162: 8. Change answers only for a very g
Page 163 and 164: Riles, 1979; Jose P. v Ambac, 1983)
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Page 171 and 172: As mentioned above, when the transi
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Page 175 and 176: their imagined points of view. Ther
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