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Most of us cannot remember learning our first language – it just seemed to happen automatically.However, for many children learning a second language, the process does not seem natural orautomatic, and it can be associated with many negative experiences and memories.Stephen Krashen (1977,1981,1982,1985) developed his Monitor Theory based on Chomsky’sconcept of a LAD. The Monitor Theory is composed of four hypotheses that provide aframework for teaching a second language:• The Input Hypothesis;• The Natural Order Hypothesis;• The Affective Filter Hypothesis; and• The Acquisition vs. Learning Hypothesis.These hypotheses lay the foundation for the communication-based teaching strategies that havebecome popular with many instructors today. We will briefly describe each hypothesis, and thenprovide a checklist summarizing the methods and tools necessary to put Krashen’s theory intoaction.Input HypothesisKrashen proposes that children only comprehensible input to activate the LAD and beginacquisition of a second language. Comprehensible input is language (either written or heard) thatis understood by the second language learner. Input becomes comprehensible when the teacheruses strategies such as:Showing pictures or visuals to accompany new vocabulary words and communicativeconcepts. For example, a math lesson on multiplying and dividing negative and positivenumbers should incorporate pictures of the positive (+) and negative (-) signs, as well as thesymbols for multiply and divide. A history lesson on Columbus sailing to the New World shouldincorporate pictures of Columbus, the ships, maps and the Taino Indians. In wood shop, ratherthan just telling the students what the tools are and what they can do, the teacher can hold up thetool or point to the tool as he/she says the name and demonstrate the tools capabilities.Additionally, the teacher can provide second language students with pictures of the tools next towhich the students can write the name and use of the tool to use as a study guide.Incorporating gestures, drama and music into the lessons,Listening to rhythms and music and physically acting out situations make a lesson morecomprehensible and memorable. To better illustrate the experiences of the first English colonistsin Virginia, the teacher might have students act out the situation using their new vocabulary andusing facial expressions to demonstrate the feelings of the colonists. The American states can betaught through songs such as “The United States.” which rhythmically introduces the students tothe name of each state. Carolyn Graham has produced a number of books for English languagedevelopment which use these rhythmic “jazz chants” to emphasize different grammar rules.Designing lessons with hands-on activities and manipulatives. Science and math are idealsubjects for incorporating hands-on activities and manipulatives. In math class, the teacher candemonstrate the concept of perimeter and area by having students place a string around differentsections of grid paper. The string represents the perimeter and the squares within the grid paperrepresent the area. To study the planets of the solar system in science class, the teacher can helpstudents measure out a scaled representation of the distances between planets outside on theplayground. Students can then represent each of the planets and find out why different planets© 2008 Dr. Catherine CollierAll Rights Reserved94
take different lengths of time to complete their orbits. An English or history lesson can utilizepictures and props to support the new vocabulary and the plot of a story. To check forcomprehension, the teacher might have students place the pictures in order and describe thepictures using the newly learned vocabulary. In geography, the teacher or the students can designa floor puzzle of the United States consisting of 50 pieces, each one a different state. Studentscan work jointly on putting the puzzle together. As well, the teacher or students can design afloor map of the world and students can stand on the different continents as the teacher says theirnames.Repeating new vocabulary. The teacher repeats vocabulary crucial to the understanding of thelesson in a variety of ways: 1) games where students place the written vocabulary word on thecorresponding picture or write the word as the teacher holds up the picture; 2) board games suchas trivial pursuit, vocabulary, scrabble, boggle or hangman. 3) computer assisted lessons thatincorporate the new vocabulary.Translation. When the second language group is homogeneous, the teacher can quickly translatekey concepts to make the lesson comprehensible. However, the teacher should not come to relyupon translation as a common teaching tool in her second language classroom, as the studentswill learn to direct their attention to the translation rather than the target language.Krashen posits that without comprehensible input, the second language learner is left with agroup of words that are perceived as incomprehensible noise and can not be processed in theLAD. As Met (1994) states, “By enabling students to match what they hear to what they see andexperience, teachers can ensure that students have access to meaning. Experiential, hands-onactivities make input comprehensible.”Comprehensible input should be adjusted as the child acquires more and more language. “Theacquirer understands (via hearing or reading) input language that contains structure ‘a bitbeyond’ his or her current level of competence.” (Krashen 1981a:100) Krashen refers to thisconcept as i+1, where “i” symbolizes the child’s present stage of acquisition and the “1”symbolizes the more advanced input the teacher will provide the child so that she may progressbeyond the present stage. For example, if a student in a Chinese language class has alreadylearned the weather expressions (its hot, its cold, its snowy etc..) the teacher can introduce theseasons using the weather terms as descriptors. In winter, it is cold and snowy. In summer, it ishot and sunny. The seasons (the more advanced concepts referred to as “1”) becomecomprehensible by describing them using known vocabulary words (“i”) .Ideally, comprehensible input should be attended to in more than just the English languagedevelopment classroom. Northcutt-Gonzalez and Schifini developed what they refer to as the“sheltered approach” to instruction, where materials in content area classes are madecomprehensible by incorporating the strategies of comprehensible input outlined above. Tharp(1989,1991, 1992, 1994) discusses the principal of Contextualization in which teachers tap intostudents’ prior knowledge to create a comprehensible content area lesson. For example, a targetlanguage science lesson on electricity will yield differing results if it is taught to a secondlanguage student who has previously studied batteries and circuits in school in her country oforigin (prior knowledge) versus a second language student who may not have even grown up© 2008 Dr. Catherine CollierAll Rights Reserved95
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"Those who arrive by age 12 or 13 m
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Article I.2 Are Signed Languages "R
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Biological analyses of the status o
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and beyond, speaking and signing ch
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Conclusion: Are Signed Languages Re
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Article I.3 The Interpreter: Has a
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A few weeks earlier, I had called F
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“We struggled even getting to the
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herself by strapping a cassette rec
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In 1998, after nine years as the ch
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momentary burst of excitement that
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can shape core grammar. Because the
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The authors compared animal and hum
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monkey moved. He followed it with h
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delight, fear, laughter, and surpri
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Piipaío in a hut: Pirahã huts typ
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LEP students, and equitable organiz
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4. Second language development crea
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curriculum or "teaching to the test
Page 43 and 44: portfolio work was scanned and stor
Page 45 and 46: experiences of many groups of stude
Page 47 and 48: While not disagreeing that interpre
Page 49 and 50: sound educational practice, however
Page 51 and 52: arises from the efforts to abstract
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Page 55 and 56: males who can serve as positive rol
Page 57 and 58: Understanding another culture is a
Page 59 and 60: Pets and AnimalsWhich animals are v
Page 61 and 62: to teach standard English is reflec
Page 63 and 64: Asking personal questions of a pers
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Page 79 and 80: each point higher in SES, students
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Page 85 and 86: 1992, p. XI). These researchers, wh
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Page 91 and 92: This idea of “semilingualism” c
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Page 97 and 98: example, should involve the same co
Page 99 and 100: As with all stages of BICS acquisit
Page 101 and 102: Assessment techniques at stage 3 ca
Page 103 and 104: different. Therefore, the social di
Page 105: integrative motivation. Basically,
Page 109 and 110: (Ellis, 1985; Hakuta, 1986). Howeve
Page 111 and 112: that sociocultural processes have o
Page 113 and 114: Article III.3 How Children Acquire
Page 115 and 116: phonetic units (unique to signed la
Page 117 and 118: Article III.4 Toward a Sociocultura
Page 119 and 120: emember is that the fundamental goa
Page 121 and 122: The best practices models can be th
Page 123 and 124: By focusing on the dialectic betwee
Page 125 and 126: intergenerational wisdom shared by
Page 127 and 128: Daily Realities RecappedThe above v
Page 129 and 130: traditions. At a time in our histor
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Page 133 and 134: Speakers communicate fluently, main
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vocabulary does the student lack?Is
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whether they are LEP and to provide
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Fourth, ESL and bilingual program s
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competent reader/writer. All versio
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Table 1Comparison of Recent Accultu
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unilinear model, which measures the
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an English-only instructional progr
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Article V.3 Assessment of English L
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8. Change answers only for a very g
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Riles, 1979; Jose P. v Ambac, 1983)
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proficiency is often underestimated
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Finally, when second language reade
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for their decisions, noting issues
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As mentioned above, when the transi
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ather than generic adjectives and t
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their imagined points of view. Ther
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English texts and demonstrate progr
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using inter-district teams). In the
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