Art Un ticle I.1 ited Sta In the ates News - Woodring College of ...

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unless the former has been phonologically integrated into the language of the latter and (b) theequivalence constraint rule which states that the word order immediately before and immediatelyafter a switching point should exist in the two languages to make it possible for a switch to takeplace. The two languages involved can then be interchanged freely.Chana (1984) describes code-switching as the juxtaposition within the same speech exchange ofpassages of speech belonging to two different grammatical systems or subsystems. The items aretied together prosodically as well as by semantic and syntactic relations equivalent to those thatjoin passages in a single language.Lipski (1982) speaks of a bilingual grammar especially during intrasentential code-switching inwritten text: Type I is the monolingual text in which there are some Spanish words withinEnglish literature or vice-versa; Type II text is the bilingual text in which lines from the twolanguages alternate with switches at the phrase or sentence boundaries. Type III text is thebilingual text which would include intrasentential code-switches-- the most highly developed. Heproposes a bilingual grammar constructed of a finely integrated blend of two languages. He saysthat code-switching provides evidence on two related planes: linguistic and psychological. Thepsychological includes the situational variables that permit a switch to occur, and the linguisticincludes factors that facilitate the switch and the precise form that a switched utterance takes.Code-switching seems to serve important communicative and cognitive functions. However inthe majority of communities studied some social stigma has been attached to this mode ofspeaking by both in/out groups.Gibbons (1983) studied language attitudes and code-switching in Hong Kong between Cantoneseand English. They indicate that when Chinese speakers use English with one another they givean impression of status and westernization. When they use Cantonese they give an impression ofChinese humility and solidarity. However, a mix was considered ill-mannered, show-off,ignorant, not good-looking, aggressive, and proud from the Cantonese point of view.Stevens (1983) found similar attitudes between French and Arabic in Tunisia with Arabic thefavored language. Chana (1984) studied listeners' evaluative reactions to code-switched speechby a speaker who was also heard as a perfect Punjabi and as a perfect English speaker. When heused the code-switched form he was considered less fluent, less intelligent, and less expressivethan when he used only Punjabi or only English.Ten years later the code-switching research shows that both users and nonusers of this linguisticform do not admit or allow its acceptability. The findings by language researchers about thelinguistic and communicative integrity of this language form seem not to have been widelyunderstood or accepted yet. A special issue on code-switching in The Journal of Multilingual andMulticultural Development summarizes (a) the wide use of code-switching in different contextsand with different languages-in-contact, (b) the major purpose of code-switching as being both asocial/discourse phenomenon as well as a structured linguistic one, (c) a comparison to therelated notion of borrowing, (d) a description of code switching patterns not as an aberration butas systematic and logical, and(e) the negative view many users and nonusers of code-switchingstill hold about it. In this special issue an important statement drawn from Monica Heller (1992)is that "the absence of code-switching can be as significant as the presence of it" (p. 124). If it issomething which happens naturally in the scheme of bilinguality it must serve importantfunctions for the language learner/user. This natural language function is in direct conflict withnormative or conventional forms and attitudes about what is "good language" and thus, it is notappreciated or supported. People may go to great lengths in some cases from denying it tofinding all sorts of reasons and ways to discourage its use and to eradicate it. Perhaps is it time to© 2008 Dr. Catherine CollierAll Rights Reserved134
question the effects of such attitudes and behavior on the whole bilingual language developmentcontinuum.ConclusionBecause code-switching (and interlanguage) do not sound conventional, and because we do notunderstand the role they play in natural language development and usage, and because we havelittle control over them, we tend to see them as aberrations. Because we do not understand wellthe linguistic and communicative rules and purposes which explain them as natural and creativeoutgrowths of being bilingual we cannot accept them as a pattern unique to bilinguals. Becausehey are neither fish nor fowl we may see them solely as alingualism, semilingualism,interference, confusion, or fossilization instead of as new and alternative forms created bycognitive/conceptual synthesis of two languages. Whether code switching is used to fill a gap orif it is a conscious desire to mix the two languages to create new forms, the language created inmost code-switches has internal linguistic consistency and validity for the learner's deepstructure. While the surface structure also has bilingual consistency and validity to thosecommunicating with it, for language separatists and language purists it is otherwise. Firstlanguage purists fear that the use of the second language with the first will either keep the firstone from growing or debase it or cause confusion in the speaker's mind. Second language puriststhink the same. It may just be that both interlanguage and code-switching are needed for manyreasons, one of which may be in order not o debase, erase, or cause cognitive confusion to eachlanguage. Wouldn't that surprise us all?In stable bilingual/multilingual contexts confusion does not seem to be the case. In fact, forbilinguals, it seems to be a case of a three-pronged language growth. It is important that peoplecharged with the language growth of bilinguals lend support to all three forms in order that theylend support to the development of the two separate languages. I have not come across anystudies which outline the development of bilinguality without the use of interlanguage, codeswitching,and other cross-linguistic phenomena. We do not know empirically for sure whetherand where and how the use of these cross-linguistic creations helps or hinders the separatedevelopment of all the languages in question. We do know that bilinguals eventually do learn toseparate their languages but that sometimes they choose not to. As with the larger bilingualeducation vs. monolingual education story, the story of cross-linguistic influence may show ahistory first of negative effects, next of neutral effects, and later still of some positive effects.It could be that even if code-switching and interlanguage are not intentional goals we might aimfor directly, at the very least it may be that we come to understand the concepts in more positivelinguistic, cognitive, communicative, and developmental terms. Both seem to be highlyincriminated in the growth process when more than one language is developing. We have not yetstudied the effects that stifling or allowing code-switching and interlanguage may have on thetotal linguistic, conceptual, and social development of the bilingual individual. We have notstudied the effects of such on bicultural development and ultimately on cultural restoration andmaintenance or on cultural shift and assimilation. My assumption is that perhaps where there is amore or less balanced code-switching (that is where as much of one language is intertwined inthe utterance of the other) in appropriate, natural, and needed code-switching domains that it maybe one of the strongest signs on the part of code-switchers to simultaneously give equal time,equal value, and equal space to both languages in both the cognitive and cultural sense. Thisshould not detract from total time, total value, and total space given to each language in other© 2008 Dr. Catherine CollierAll Rights Reserved135
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"Those who arrive by age 12 or 13 m
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Article I.2 Are Signed Languages "R
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Biological analyses of the status o
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and beyond, speaking and signing ch
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Conclusion: Are Signed Languages Re
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Article I.3 The Interpreter: Has a
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A few weeks earlier, I had called F
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“We struggled even getting to the
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herself by strapping a cassette rec
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In 1998, after nine years as the ch
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momentary burst of excitement that
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can shape core grammar. Because the
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The authors compared animal and hum
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monkey moved. He followed it with h
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delight, fear, laughter, and surpri
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Piipaío in a hut: Pirahã huts typ
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LEP students, and equitable organiz
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4. Second language development crea
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curriculum or "teaching to the test
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portfolio work was scanned and stor
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experiences of many groups of stude
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While not disagreeing that interpre
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sound educational practice, however
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arises from the efforts to abstract
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Article II.2 Cross-Cultural Communi
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males who can serve as positive rol
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Understanding another culture is a
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Pets and AnimalsWhich animals are v
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to teach standard English is reflec
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Asking personal questions of a pers
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Using Cross Cultural Communication
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Why Do Nonstandard English-Speaking
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Before beginning to teach standard
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• Negative attitudes toward low p
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New standardized tests and assessme
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Each of the behaviors listed above
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Article II.3 Hard Work Hypothesis:
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each point higher in SES, students
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This case does not provide strong s
Page 83 and 84: Article II.4 Language Acquisition a
Page 85 and 86: 1992, p. XI). These researchers, wh
Page 87 and 88: comprehend a word within a specific
Page 89 and 90: more to the truthfulness of the chi
Page 91 and 92: This idea of “semilingualism” c
Page 93 and 94: Article III.1 A Brief Description o
Page 95 and 96: take different lengths of time to c
Page 97 and 98: example, should involve the same co
Page 99 and 100: As with all stages of BICS acquisit
Page 101 and 102: Assessment techniques at stage 3 ca
Page 103 and 104: different. Therefore, the social di
Page 105: integrative motivation. Basically,
Page 109 and 110: (Ellis, 1985; Hakuta, 1986). Howeve
Page 111 and 112: that sociocultural processes have o
Page 113 and 114: Article III.3 How Children Acquire
Page 115 and 116: phonetic units (unique to signed la
Page 117 and 118: Article III.4 Toward a Sociocultura
Page 119 and 120: emember is that the fundamental goa
Page 121 and 122: The best practices models can be th
Page 123 and 124: By focusing on the dialectic betwee
Page 125 and 126: intergenerational wisdom shared by
Page 127 and 128: Daily Realities RecappedThe above v
Page 129 and 130: traditions. At a time in our histor
Page 131 and 132: We will now look at two examples of
Page 133: Speakers communicate fluently, main
Page 137 and 138: Article IV.3 Culture Change: Effect
Page 139 and 140: and psychological characteristics o
Page 141 and 142: Contraryto what wewere expecting, t
Page 143 and 144: Article V.1 Assessment in ESL & Bil
Page 145 and 146: vocabulary does the student lack?Is
Page 147 and 148: whether they are LEP and to provide
Page 149 and 150: Fourth, ESL and bilingual program s
Page 151 and 152: competent reader/writer. All versio
Page 153 and 154: Table 1Comparison of Recent Accultu
Page 155 and 156: unilinear model, which measures the
Page 157 and 158: an English-only instructional progr
Page 159 and 160: Article V.3 Assessment of English L
Page 161 and 162: 8. Change answers only for a very g
Page 163 and 164: Riles, 1979; Jose P. v Ambac, 1983)
Page 165 and 166: proficiency is often underestimated
Page 167 and 168: Finally, when second language reade
Page 169 and 170: for their decisions, noting issues
Page 171 and 172: As mentioned above, when the transi
Page 173 and 174: ather than generic adjectives and t
Page 175 and 176: their imagined points of view. Ther
Page 177 and 178: English texts and demonstrate progr
Page 179: using inter-district teams). In the
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