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with electricity in her house. The student who has previous experience with electricity will havethe capability to transfer that prior knowledge to the present lesson and therefore, will have abetter understanding of the lesson and the new vocabulary. The student who has had only alimited exposure to electricity in her personal experience will most likely find the new materialincomprehensible and, therefore, difficult to acquire. It is important that teachers assess the priorknowledge of their students and then, build upon the complexity of the lesson from the point ofprior knowledge to the introduction of more advanced concepts. The principal ofContextualization is very similar to Krashen’s notion of “i+1.” The “i” in this situation is thestudent’s previously acquired academic knowledge. The “1” would symbolize the newknowledge the teacher will build onto the prior knowledge.It is important to note that the sheltered approach to content area instruction is best suited for ahomogeneous group of English language learners. If the Sheltered class consists of a mixedgroup of English-only students and English language learners, the lesson is more difficult toimplement. These two groups have different needs and the English-only students will tend todominate the class due to their superior English skills.Making a lesson comprehensible also involves assessing a student’s level of academicvocabulary. Cummins (1979) discusses two forms of language developed in the acquisitionprocess: Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills (BICS) and Cognitive Academic LanguageProficiency (CALP). BICS is the first type of language a student acquires and is often referred toas “playground vocabulary” or survival vocabulary. It is the language that a person needs tofunction in society or to socialize with family and friends. It usually takes a student 2-5 years toacquire a high proficiency in BICS. Students with advanced BICS skills can converse about aseemingly endless number of topics and are familiar with the target language slang and idiomaticexpressions. However, these same students may have great difficulty in academic areas such asscience, math and history that require a different type of vocabulary (i.e. CALP). Rarely dostudents discuss academic subjects using academic vocabulary while socializing with family orfriends. Therefore, unless specifically instructed in the academic vocabulary necessary tounderstand the lesson, second language students are prone to a low proficiency in this cognitiveacademic language, which can lead to academic failure. To ensure the success of secondlanguage students, it is important for content area teachers to directly instruct second languagestudents (using comprehensible input strategies) in the academic vocabulary and languagepatterns necessary to comprehend the content area lesson. The following would be consideredexamples of academic vocabulary:Math - add, subtract, divide, multiple, integer, graph, etc.;History - democratic, vote, president, constitution, etc.;English - plot, protagonist, character, outline, scene, etc.; andScience - beaker, Bunsen burner, electricity, atoms, etc.Thus, while teachers need to be aware of providing comprehensible input, they must also attendto the degree of Cognitive Challenge. As Tharp (1994) warns, “At-risk students, particularlythose of limited Standard English proficiency, are often “forgiven” any academic challenges, onthe assumption that they are of limited ability; or they are “forgiven” any genuine assessment ofprogress because the assessment tools don’t fit.” Teachers should not “water down” thecurriculum to make it comprehensible. At-risk students require instruction that is cognitivelychallenging and demanding of analysis and critical thinking, not just drills and repetition.Teachers should set challenging standards for their students and then prepare lessons thatfacilitate students’ ascension to these standards. A cognitively challenging lesson in history, for© 2008 Dr. Catherine CollierAll Rights Reserved96
example, should involve the same concepts as those introduced in the corresponding mainstreamhistory class (i.e. Manifest Destiny, the Constitution), but, the second language history teacherwould incorporate strategies to make the lesson more comprehensible (i.e. visuals, drama) anddirectly instruct the students on the academic vocabulary necessary to understand the lesson. Ifthe teacher uses comprehensible input in the lessons while simultaneously developing CALPvocabulary, the majority of students will meet the cognitive challenge presented by the teacher.Checklist for Teachers Implementing the “Input Hypothesis” in the Classroom• Prepare visuals, realia, and manipulatives (drawings, photographs, real life objects,counting devices, etc.).• Determine the prior knowledge students bring to your lesson and plan the lesson fromthat point.• Plan content area lessons that incorporate the same concepts as the mainstream classesbut modify the curriculum by adding devices to make it comprehensible to yourstudents.• Decipher the academic vocabulary the students require to understand the lesson andplan a strategy to teach the students this vocabulary.Natural Order HypothesisKrashen hypothesizes that every person learning a language will acquire that language in apredictable order. For example, students learning English, regardless of their cultural andlinguistic background, will acquire the plural “s” (girls) before the third person singular “s”(likes). Despite the time a teacher spends practicing the grammatical aspect of third personsingular “s” with the students, the students will not use the grammatical aspect in target languageconversations until they have naturally acquired it. The natural order of acquisition is notaffected by instructional sequences. Krashen suggests that providing students with meaningfulcomprehensible input that contains grammar, but focuses on communication, will enablestudents to naturally acquire the necessary grammar. Krashen expanded the “Natural Order”hypothesis when he teamed with Tracy Terrell to develop the four stages of BICS languageacquisition.Stage 1- Pre-ProductionStudent Characteristics and Examples of Student WorkDuring the pre-production stage, the second language student actively listens to the languageinput. Much like a one year old baby, the student is developing comprehension in the secondlanguage. At this level, student ‘s reading and oral production will be marked with a transferenceof their first language pronunciation. For example, the letters of the alphabet represent differentsounds in different languages. A Spanish speaker will pronounce the letter “i” as “e,” and “v” as“b.” Because the Asian languages do not differentiate between the phonemes [l] and [r], thestudents will mix these letters when speaking or reading. Given time, however, the students willacquire the sounds of the English alphabet and slowly change their pronunciation. As well, theformat of stories differs among languages. For example, a Spanish speaker is accustomed tolonger sentences and will, therefore, often ignore the English punctuation when reading aloud toproduce a story formatted more like his/her native language. Again, given time, the secondlanguage student will acquire the format of English language story telling and writing. A stage 1student will be unable to correctly produce verbs in the past or future tenses and will rely on the© 2008 Dr. Catherine CollierAll Rights Reserved97
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"Those who arrive by age 12 or 13 m
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Article I.2 Are Signed Languages "R
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Biological analyses of the status o
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and beyond, speaking and signing ch
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Conclusion: Are Signed Languages Re
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Article I.3 The Interpreter: Has a
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A few weeks earlier, I had called F
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“We struggled even getting to the
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herself by strapping a cassette rec
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In 1998, after nine years as the ch
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momentary burst of excitement that
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can shape core grammar. Because the
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The authors compared animal and hum
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monkey moved. He followed it with h
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delight, fear, laughter, and surpri
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Piipaío in a hut: Pirahã huts typ
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LEP students, and equitable organiz
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4. Second language development crea
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curriculum or "teaching to the test
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portfolio work was scanned and stor
Page 45 and 46: experiences of many groups of stude
Page 47 and 48: While not disagreeing that interpre
Page 49 and 50: sound educational practice, however
Page 51 and 52: arises from the efforts to abstract
Page 53 and 54: Article II.2 Cross-Cultural Communi
Page 55 and 56: males who can serve as positive rol
Page 57 and 58: Understanding another culture is a
Page 59 and 60: Pets and AnimalsWhich animals are v
Page 61 and 62: to teach standard English is reflec
Page 63 and 64: Asking personal questions of a pers
Page 65 and 66: Using Cross Cultural Communication
Page 67 and 68: Why Do Nonstandard English-Speaking
Page 69 and 70: Before beginning to teach standard
Page 71 and 72: • Negative attitudes toward low p
Page 73 and 74: New standardized tests and assessme
Page 75 and 76: Each of the behaviors listed above
Page 77 and 78: Article II.3 Hard Work Hypothesis:
Page 79 and 80: each point higher in SES, students
Page 81 and 82: This case does not provide strong s
Page 83 and 84: Article II.4 Language Acquisition a
Page 85 and 86: 1992, p. XI). These researchers, wh
Page 87 and 88: comprehend a word within a specific
Page 89 and 90: more to the truthfulness of the chi
Page 91 and 92: This idea of “semilingualism” c
Page 93 and 94: Article III.1 A Brief Description o
Page 95: take different lengths of time to c
Page 99 and 100: As with all stages of BICS acquisit
Page 101 and 102: Assessment techniques at stage 3 ca
Page 103 and 104: different. Therefore, the social di
Page 105: integrative motivation. Basically,
Page 109 and 110: (Ellis, 1985; Hakuta, 1986). Howeve
Page 111 and 112: that sociocultural processes have o
Page 113 and 114: Article III.3 How Children Acquire
Page 115 and 116: phonetic units (unique to signed la
Page 117 and 118: Article III.4 Toward a Sociocultura
Page 119 and 120: emember is that the fundamental goa
Page 121 and 122: The best practices models can be th
Page 123 and 124: By focusing on the dialectic betwee
Page 125 and 126: intergenerational wisdom shared by
Page 127 and 128: Daily Realities RecappedThe above v
Page 129 and 130: traditions. At a time in our histor
Page 131 and 132: We will now look at two examples of
Page 133 and 134: Speakers communicate fluently, main
Page 135 and 136: question the effects of such attitu
Page 137 and 138: Article IV.3 Culture Change: Effect
Page 139 and 140: and psychological characteristics o
Page 141 and 142: Contraryto what wewere expecting, t
Page 143 and 144: Article V.1 Assessment in ESL & Bil
Page 145 and 146: vocabulary does the student lack?Is
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whether they are LEP and to provide
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Fourth, ESL and bilingual program s
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competent reader/writer. All versio
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Table 1Comparison of Recent Accultu
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unilinear model, which measures the
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an English-only instructional progr
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Article V.3 Assessment of English L
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8. Change answers only for a very g
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Riles, 1979; Jose P. v Ambac, 1983)
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proficiency is often underestimated
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Finally, when second language reade
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for their decisions, noting issues
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As mentioned above, when the transi
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ather than generic adjectives and t
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their imagined points of view. Ther
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English texts and demonstrate progr
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using inter-district teams). In the
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