AbstractBackground: Interurban traffic safety is a major public health problem, but has received little attention in LowandMiddle-Income Countries (LMICs). The objectives of this thesis were to assess the bur<strong>de</strong>n of injury relatedto interurban traffic, and reporting of these injuries in different datasets, to analyze situational factors (physicalcharacteristics and environmental circumstances) associated with crash sites, and road hazard perception of highriskcrash sites in LMICs. Methods and results: These objectives were assessed in five specific studiesconducted in two LMICs, Cameroon and Pakistan. In study I, traffic fatality per vehicle-km and associated crashfactors were assessed using police reports for years 2004 to 2007, on the two-lane Yaoundé-Douala road sectionin Cameroon. Traffic fatality was 73 per 100 million vehicle-km, a rate 35 times higher than a similar road in ahigh-income country. Fatality was higher for crashes involving vulnerable road users, crashes betweenoppositely-moving vehicles, and those due to mechanical failure including tyre burst. In study II, traffic injuryreporting to police, ambulance, and Emergency Department (ED) in 2008 was assessed, on the four-laneKarachi-Hala road section in Pakistan. Crash fatality was over 53 per 10 9 vehicle-km, a rate 13 times higher thana similar road in France. Police reported only one out of five fatalities and one out of ten severe injuries.Vulnerable road users were two times less reported in police data than ambulance or ED data. In study III,situational factors associated with injury crash sites were assessed on the Yaoundé-Douala road section, usingcase-control methods. Factors such as flat road profiles (adjusted Odds Ratios [OR]=1.52; 95% Confi<strong>de</strong>nceInterval [95%CI]=1.15-2.01), irregular surface conditions (OR=1.43; 95%CI=1.04-1.99), nearby road obstacles(OR=1.99; 95%CI=1.09-3.63), and three- (OR=3.11; 95%CI=1.15-8.39) or four-legged (OR=3.23; 95%CI=1.51-6.92) intersections were significantly associated with injury crash sites. Furthermore, the likelihood of crashincreased with built-up areas situated in plain regions (OR=2.33; 95%CI=1.97-2.77). In study IV, traffic injurybur<strong>de</strong>n and factors associated with Highway Work Zones (HWZs) crashes were assessed on the Karachi-Halaroad section, using historical cohort methods. HWZs accounted for one third of traffic fatalities, and fatality pervehicle-km was four times higher in HWZs than other zones. One out of two HWZ crashes occurred betweenoppositely moving vehicles. In study V, hazard perception of high-risk (with ≥ 3 crashes in 3 years) and low-risksites (no crash reported) from the two above road sections was assessed by showing vi<strong>de</strong>os to voluntaryPakistani drivers. Drivers were able to i<strong>de</strong>ntify only half of the high-risk sites as hazardous. Sites with a flat andstraight road profile had a lower hazard perception compared to those with curved and slope road profile. Highrisksites situated in built-up areas were perceived less hazardous (OR = 0.58; 95%CI=0.51-0.68) compared tolow-risk sites (OR = 2.04; 95%CI=1.51-2.74) with same road situation. Further, high-risk sites with vertical roadsigns were more likely to be perceived hazardous (OR = 2.75; 95%CI=2.38-3.16) than low-risk sites (OR = 0.50;95%CI=0.34-0.72) with such signs. Conclusion: This thesis illustrates how innovative yet simpleepi<strong>de</strong>miological methods can be useful in assessing the injury bur<strong>de</strong>n and specific risk factors in LMICs. Thesecountries face a high bur<strong>de</strong>n of interurban road injuries, mostly un<strong>de</strong>r-reported in police data. A reliable andaccurate injury surveillance system is nee<strong>de</strong>d in these countries. Moreover, prevention policy can be improvedby better information transfer between road and police authorities regarding situational factors. Similarly, amonitoring system is required to examine the HWZ safety interventions in these countries. Lastly, interurbanroad safety can be improved by making roads self-explaining, especially by implementing low-cost interventionssuch as vertical signs at high-risk sites.Keywords: Developing country; highway safety; injury; prevention; vulnerable road users.10
1. IntroductionLes traumatismes routiers sont un problème majeur et pourtant très négligé <strong>de</strong> la santépublique dans les Pays <strong>à</strong> Revenu Bas et Moyen (PRBM) [1]. Une enquête récente sur lasécurité routière dans 178 pays a montré que chaque année plus <strong>de</strong> 90 % <strong>de</strong>s 1,2 million <strong>de</strong>tués sur les routes surviennent dans ces pays [2]. De plus, ces traumatismes sont la principalecause <strong>de</strong> pertes <strong>de</strong>s Années <strong>de</strong> Vie Corrigées du facteur Incapacité (AVCI) dans les PRBM,car <strong>de</strong> nombreux enfants et <strong>de</strong>s hommes en âge <strong>de</strong> production souffrent <strong>de</strong> ces blessures [3].Les traumatismes pourraient coûter jusqu'<strong>à</strong> 1 <strong>à</strong>1,5 % du Produit Intérieur Brut (PIB) <strong>de</strong> cespays [4]. On estime que la mortalité routière augmenterait <strong>de</strong> 80 % entre 1990 et 2020 dansles PRBM, <strong>à</strong> moins que <strong>de</strong>s mesures appropriées soient mises en œuvre [5].Pourtant, le transport routier est un facteur essentiel <strong>de</strong> développement dans les PRBM [6].Près <strong>de</strong> 90 % <strong>de</strong>s voyageurs et du fret dans ces pays sont transportés par le réseau routierurbain et interurbain [6, 7]. La sécurité routière sur ces routes <strong>de</strong>vient donc un élémentstratégique du processus d’accroissement du développement [8]. Même dans les paysdéveloppés, cette catégorie <strong>de</strong> routes contribue considérablement <strong>à</strong> la mortalité routière et <strong>à</strong><strong>de</strong>s blessures graves [9]. Par exemple au Pakistan, plus <strong>de</strong> 27% <strong>de</strong>s acci<strong>de</strong>nts mortelssurviennent sur les routes interurbaines alors qu'elles représentent moins <strong>de</strong> 5 % <strong>de</strong> l'ensembledu réseau [10]. Les avantages potentiels <strong>de</strong> la mise en œuvre <strong>de</strong>s mesures <strong>de</strong> sécurité routièresur ces routes sont potentiellement énormes, comme cela a été montré par <strong>de</strong>s étu<strong>de</strong>s dans lespays développés [11].La recherche joue un rôle central dans la mise en œuvre <strong>de</strong>s interventions sur la circulation[12]. Les conditions routières relativement sûres dans les Pays <strong>à</strong> Revenu Élevé (PRE) doiventbeaucoup aux recherches sur la sécurité routière menées dans les années 1960 et 1970 [13].Par exemple en Suè<strong>de</strong>, il a été démontré que la recherche sur la gestion <strong>de</strong> la vitesse en zonesurbaines a largement contribué <strong>à</strong> réduire la mortalité et la morbidité routières, avec un bonrapport coût-bénéfice [14]. Malheureusement, la recherche sur la prévention et la prise encharge <strong>de</strong>s traumatismes routiers reste encore rudimentaire dans les PRBM [15]. La BanqueMondiale a indiqué que <strong>de</strong>s interventions <strong>à</strong> l'efficacité prouvée existent, mais leur mise enœuvre dans les PRBM est entravée par le manque <strong>de</strong> recherche pour documenter etcomprendre les problèmes spécifiques et locaux <strong>de</strong>s traumatismes [16]. Si les interventions nesont pas adaptées <strong>à</strong> la situation locale, elles peuvent ne pas produire le même succès, commeen témoignent les étu<strong>de</strong>s dans les PRE [17].Le manque <strong>de</strong> recherche dans les PRBM est illustré par notre revue <strong>de</strong> la littérature sur lefar<strong>de</strong>au <strong>de</strong>s traumatismes routiers et les facteurs <strong>de</strong> risque associés aux routes interurbaines(Appendix 1) : les indicateurs comparables <strong>de</strong> la mortalité routier sont rarement évalués etrapportés ; certaines étu<strong>de</strong>s mentionnent une certaine spécificité, comme la sur-implication<strong>de</strong>s piétons et <strong>de</strong>s occupants <strong>de</strong> transports collectifs dans les acci<strong>de</strong>nts sur <strong>de</strong>s routesinterurbaines, mais la répartition réelle <strong>de</strong>s usagers <strong>de</strong> la route impliqués dans ces acci<strong>de</strong>ntsn’est pas connue ; la plupart <strong>de</strong>s étu<strong>de</strong>s épidémiologiques se focalise sur les comportementsroutiers <strong>à</strong> risque alors que les facteurs situationnels (caractéristiques physiques etcirconstances <strong>de</strong> l'environnement) n’ont presque jamais été étudiés [18-48]. Des recherchesantérieures dans les PRE montrent clairement que ces facteurs sont impliqués dans un quart<strong>de</strong>s acci<strong>de</strong>nts et que les interventions mise en œuvre sur les routes pourraient réduire lesacci<strong>de</strong>nts <strong>de</strong> 20 % [49].11
- Page 1: Université Victor Segalen Bordeaux
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- Page 6 and 7: Index of figuresFigure 1. Traffic f
- Page 8 and 9: AbbreviationsAKUAVCIBMIEASESSDALYDW
- Page 12 and 13: L'objectif de cette thèse était d
- Page 14 and 15: 2. Background2.1 Road injury burden
- Page 16 and 17: 2.4 Multiple factors involved in tr
- Page 18 and 19: Figure 4. Percentage difference of
- Page 20 and 21: 2.7 Interurban road safety research
- Page 22 and 23: ObjectivesThe objectives of this fi
- Page 24 and 25: ResultsCrash burdenA total of 935 R
- Page 26 and 27: Figure 7. Monthly trend of traffic
- Page 28 and 29: Injury outcome patternsMost of inju
- Page 30 and 31: MethodsThe study setting was 196-km
- Page 32 and 33: patients. In the ED, those with NIS
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- Page 36 and 37: 5. Analytical StudiesPrevious liter
- Page 38 and 39: under supervision of Dr. Sobngwi-Ta
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- Page 42 and 43: MethodsStudy design and settingStud
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- Page 46 and 47: normal zones. However, this associa
- Page 48 and 49: MethodsStudy design and settingsThe
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- Page 52 and 53: located in built-up area in Pakista
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observational studies on how the de
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to understand the deficiencies in t
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[24] Damsere-Derry J, Afukaar FK, D
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[69] Central Intelligence Agency. T
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[111] Geurts K, Wets G, Brijs T, Va
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[154] Rosenbloom T, Shahar A, Elhar
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4. Farooq U, Bhatti JA, Siddiq M, M
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Appendix 1: Literature review on in
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they identified a cluster of long b
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more cost-effective than redesignin
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Table 18. Traffic injury interventi
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Appendix 3: Study I supplementary r
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Appendix 4: Manuscript in preparati
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BACKGROUNDPakistan, located at the
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patients were recorded during their
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This might motivate police officers
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12. Peden M, Scurfiled R, Sleet D,
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Table 1. Traffic injuries reported
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Table 3. Ascertainment of police, a
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Appendix 5: Article published - Stu
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104
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106
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108
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Appendix 6: Article under review -
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1. INTRODUCTIONWith the aging of hi
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A total of 180 crashes were identif
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conspicuity at HWZs in Pakistan. 2
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21. Sobngwi-Tambekou J, Bhatti J, K
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Table 2. Highway work zone crash fa
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122
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ABSTRACTObjectives: Interurban road
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oad). A matched strategy was used t
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SitesOut of 131 crash sites identif
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Similarly, it was shown previously
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Majdzadeh, R., Khalagi, K., Naraghi
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Table 2. Characteristics of Pakista
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Table 4. Factors associated with ha
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Table 21. Situational factors at hi
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Table 23. Situational factors assoc