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Similarly, it was shown previously that drivers of lighter and more powerful vehicleswere over-involved in crashes (Bener et al., 2006). Traffic composition on highways even inLMICs is significantly different from the cities, and passengers of such vehicles account for amajority of traffic injuries (Sobngwi-Tambekou et al., 2010). Furthermore, a low seat-belt anda high cell phone use reflected the low hazard perception observed in those driving suchvehicles (Perneger & Smith, 1991). These results indicated that improving hazard awarenessby enforcement and road measures might be useful in reducing crash risk in relativelyvulnerable groups (Rosenbloom, Shahar, Elharar, & Danino, 2008).Lastly, the high hazard perception of Cameroonian sites compared to Pakistani sitescould be explained by several factors. Firstly, the traffic was separated in Pakistan comparedto non-separated in Cameroon. A higher hazard perception was observed for maintenancezones in Pakistan, where traffic was not separated (Lewis-Evans & Charlton, 2006; Morgan,Duley, & Hancock). Further, mountainous terrain, unfamiliarity with the road section, andright-hand drive could augment the hazard perception for Cameroonian sites among Pakistanidrivers (McKenna, Horswill, & Alexander, 2006; Sagberg & Bjornskau, 2006). Areproduction of this study with Cameroonian drivers might help to assess the impact offamiliarity on hazard perception (McKenna et al., 1991).The study may have several limitations. Firstly, police underreporting of crashesmight have resulted in a small sample size to select high-risk sites (World HealthOrganization, 2009). Secondly, selection of voluntary drivers could lead to a prudent driversample (Delhomme, 1991). Thirdly, drivers may respond higher hazard perception for sites inPakistan known to them as high-risk ones (Lewis-Evans & Charlton, 2006). These biasesmight lead to high hazard perception of high-risk sites.In conclusion, the study methods provided an opportunity to identify high-risk siteswith poor hazard perception features (Milleville-Pennel et al., 2007). These results showedthat implementing cost effective interventions such as hazard signs at those sites could reducetraffic speeds (Rosenbloom et al., 2008). These methods could be useful to assess expectedimpact of such interventions at those sites (Milleville-Pennel et al., 2007). Furthermore, thesemight help in developing and implementing specific interventions adapted to local settings inHICs and LMICs (Jamison, Mosley, Measham, & Bobadilla, 1993). Feasibility of thesemethods however, remains to be assessed.ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSAuthors are especially thankful to Dr. Aftab Ahmed PATHAN (NHMP), Mr. IrshadSODHAR (NHMP), Mr. Naeemullah SHIEKH (NHMP), Mr. Javed SHAH (AKU), Dr.Sanaullah BASHIR (AKU), and Dr. Kiran EJAZ (AKU) for their support in data collection.Authors would like to thank all the drivers who participated in the hazard perception studyand the owners of transport agencies who provided us the space to conduct the interviews.FUNDINGFirst author is the PhD candidate at Université Victor Segalen Bordeaux 2. This position isfunded by Higher Education Commission of Pakistan. Institut National de la Santé et de laRecherche Médicale Unité 897, France, funded the logistics for data collection. Fundingbodies had no input in study design, analysis and interpretation of results.REFERENCES130
Afukaar, F. K. (2003). Speed control in developing countries: issues, challenges andopportunities in reducing road traffic injuries. Inj Control Saf Promot, 10(1-2), 77-81.Benda, H. V., & Hoyos, C. G. (1983). Estimating hazards in traffic situations. Accid AnalPrev, 15(1), 1-9.Bener, A., Ghaffar, A., Azab, A., Sankaran-Kutty, M., Toth, F., & Lovasz, G. (2006). Theimpact of four-wheel drives on traffic disability and deaths compared to passenger cars. J CollPhysicians Surg Pak, 16(4), 257-260.Bhatti, J. A., Sobngwi-Tambekou, J., Lagarde, E., & Salmi, L. R. Situational factorsassociated with road traffic crashes: A case-control study on the Yaounde-Douala roadsection, Cameroon. Int J Inj Contr Saf Promot, 1-8.Bishai, D., Asiimwe, B., Abbas, S., Hyder, A. A., & Bazeyo, W. (2008). Cost-effectiveness oftraffic enforcement: case study from Uganda. Inj Prev, 14(4), 223-227.Damsere-Derry, J., Afukaar, F. K., Donkor, P., & Mock, C. (2008). Assessment of vehiclespeeds on different categories of roadways in Ghana. Int J Inj Contr Saf Promot, 15(2), 83-91.Deery, H. A. (1999). Hazard and risk perception among young novice drivers. J Safety Res,30(4), 225-236.DeJoy, D. M. (1989). The optimism bias and traffic accident risk perception. Accid Anal Prev,21(4), 333-340.Delhomme, P. (1991). Comparing one's driving with others': assessment of abilities andfrequency of offences. Evidence for a superior conformity of self-bias? Accid Anal Prev,23(6), 493-508.Elvik, R. (2008). A survey of operational definitions of hazardous road locations in someEuropean countries. Accid Anal Prev, 40(6), 1830-1835.Finn, P., & Bragg, B. W. (1986). Perception of the risk of an accident by young and olderdrivers. Accid Anal Prev, 18(4), 289-298.Flahault, A., Cadilhac, M., & Thomas, G. (2005). Sample size calculation should beperformed for design accuracy in diagnostic test studies. J Clin Epidemiol, 58(8), 859-862.Geurts, K., & Wets, G. (2003). Black Spot Analysis Methods: Literature Review (No. RA-2003-07). Diepenbeek: Steunpunt Verkeersveiligheid Bij Stijgende Mobiliteit.Geurts, K., Wets, G., Brijs, T., Vanhoof, K., & Karlis, D. (2006). Ranking and selectingdangerous crash locations: correcting for the number of passengers and Bayesian rankingplots. J Safety Res, 37(1), 83-91.Goldenbeld, C., & van Schagen, I. (2007). The credibility of speed limits on 80 km/h ruralroads: The effects of road and person(ality) characteristics. Accid Anal Prev, 39(6), 1121-1130.Harre, N. (2000). Risk evaluation, driving, and adolescents: a typology. Dev Rev, 20, 206-226.Hijar, M., Carrillo, C., Flores, M., Anaya, R., & Lopez, V. (2000). Risk factors in highwaytraffic accidents: a case control study. Accid Anal Prev, 32(5), 703-709.Hosmer, D. W., & Lemeshow, S. (2000). Applied Logistic Regression (Second ed.). Danvers,MA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Jamison, D. T., Mosley, W. H., Measham, A. B., & Bobadilla, J. L. (Eds.). (1993). DiseaseControl Priorities in Developing Countries. Washington, DC: Oxford University Press.Kanellaidis, G., Zervas, A., & Karagioules, V. (2000). Drivers' Risk Perception of RoadDesign Elements. Transportation Human Factors, 2(1), 39-48.Konstantopoulos, P., Chapman, P., & Crundall, D. Driver's visual attention as a function ofdriving experience and visibility. Using a driving simulator to explore drivers' eye movementsin day, night and rain driving. Accid Anal Prev, 42(3), 827-834.Lewis-Evans, B., & Charlton, S. G. (2006). Explicit and implicit processes in behaviouraladaptation to road width. Accid Anal Prev, 38(3), 610-617.131
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Université Victor Segalen Bordeaux
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Publications (peer-reviewed).......
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Index of figuresFigure 1. Traffic f
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AbbreviationsAKUAVCIBMIEASESSDALYDW
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AbstractBackground: Interurban traf
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L'objectif de cette thèse était d
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2. Background2.1 Road injury burden
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2.4 Multiple factors involved in tr
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Figure 4. Percentage difference of
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2.7 Interurban road safety research
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ObjectivesThe objectives of this fi
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ResultsCrash burdenA total of 935 R
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Figure 7. Monthly trend of traffic
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Injury outcome patternsMost of inju
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MethodsThe study setting was 196-km
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patients. In the ED, those with NIS
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Table 6. Traffic injuries reported
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5. Analytical StudiesPrevious liter
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under supervision of Dr. Sobngwi-Ta
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Table 9. Situational variables at c
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MethodsStudy design and settingStud
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to Dec 08 were retrieved and photoc
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normal zones. However, this associa
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MethodsStudy design and settingsThe
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Figure 14. Picture extracted of a h
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located in built-up area in Pakista
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Table 15. Differences in hazard per
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6. Discussion6.1 Originality of stu
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Although adjustments are possible,
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observational studies on how the de
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to understand the deficiencies in t
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[24] Damsere-Derry J, Afukaar FK, D
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[69] Central Intelligence Agency. T
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[111] Geurts K, Wets G, Brijs T, Va
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[154] Rosenbloom T, Shahar A, Elhar
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4. Farooq U, Bhatti JA, Siddiq M, M
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Appendix 1: Literature review on in
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they identified a cluster of long b
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more cost-effective than redesignin
Page 80 and 81: Table 18. Traffic injury interventi
Page 86 and 87: Appendix 3: Study I supplementary r
Page 88 and 89: Appendix 4: Manuscript in preparati
Page 90 and 91: BACKGROUNDPakistan, located at the
Page 92 and 93: patients were recorded during their
Page 94 and 95: This might motivate police officers
Page 96 and 97: 12. Peden M, Scurfiled R, Sleet D,
Page 98 and 99: Table 1. Traffic injuries reported
Page 100 and 101: Table 3. Ascertainment of police, a
Page 102 and 103: Appendix 5: Article published - Stu
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Page 106 and 107: 106
Page 108 and 109: 108
Page 110 and 111: Appendix 6: Article under review -
Page 112 and 113: 1. INTRODUCTIONWith the aging of hi
Page 114 and 115: A total of 180 crashes were identif
Page 116 and 117: conspicuity at HWZs in Pakistan. 2
Page 118 and 119: 21. Sobngwi-Tambekou J, Bhatti J, K
Page 120 and 121: Table 2. Highway work zone crash fa
Page 122 and 123: 122
Page 124 and 125: ABSTRACTObjectives: Interurban road
Page 126 and 127: oad). A matched strategy was used t
Page 128 and 129: SitesOut of 131 crash sites identif
Page 132 and 133: Majdzadeh, R., Khalagi, K., Naraghi
Page 134 and 135: Table 2. Characteristics of Pakista
Page 136 and 137: Table 4. Factors associated with ha
Page 138 and 139: Table 21. Situational factors at hi
Page 140 and 141: Table 23. Situational factors assoc
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