Poverty Dimensions of Public Governance and Forest Management ...

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Annex 1: 20 exploitation of resources, and rights to alienate land for the creation of forest reserves. With the development of an export timber industry and the concession system, starting in the 1940s, this has been interpreted to mean that chiefs have rights to all natural resources as well as control over the issue of permits and concessions for exploitation. Thus, the exploitation of natural resources preserved by farmers on their own land has effectively been criminalized, particularly when a permit or concession has been allocated to another party. The 1962 Concessions Act vested all trees in Ghana in the office of the President to administer on behalf of chiefs. This has given the Forestry Department the power to control the use of all trees on reserves and farmland. The timber industry has the right to exploit timber produced on farmland without making any payments to the farmer. Royalties are only paid to the chiefs in whose domain the timber was felled and to the local district authorities. The access of farmers to fallow and farmland trees for livelihood purposes has gradually been eroded. At one time, there was a clear demarcation between timber species which local producers had rights to utilise for the domestic market (‘odum’ and ‘wawa’) and those produced for the export trade by concessionaires (mainly redwoods, mahogany and cedar). However, with a growing focus on export-led growth, increasing scarcity of timber, and diversification of exports, the domestic timber species have been monopolised by timber concessionaires producing for export. The majority of export timber now originates from off-reserve concessions on farmlands. The ban on chainsawn lumber criminalizes the small-scale timber sector and puts the production of timber for the domestic market in the hands of concessionaires and sawmills. This ban has been implemented without creating the necessary mechanisms to ensure that domestic supplies of timber can be met by the sawmills. As a result, chainsawn timber still dominates the domestic market. It is now produced illegally, mostly by wellorganised urban businessmen who can evade custom checkpoints and make all the necessary payments en route to the main urban markets. Chainsaws are not only used for processing lumber but also play an important part in several forest products, such as mortars, canoe carving, other wood-carving crafts, fuelwood, etc. The wording of the legislation governing the ban on charcoal production is sufficiently vague to also effect these other sectors, where producers encounter problems of getting legal access to trees, getting access to chainsaw operators to process trees or logs, and being able to transport their products easily along major transport routes without being reprimanded by police and custom officials. As a result of these problems, natural resource livelihood options in the Brong Ahafo region have increasingly focussed on charcoal production, which depends on utilising trees other than the main timber species. However, production within this sector is also affected by the struggles of district authorities to gain control over the resource, as well as by an environmental lobby which blames charcoal producers for serious land degradation, even desertification. In the early 1990s, the promotion of NTFPs formed a central part of the DFID (ODA) Collaborative Forest Management Programme in the Forestry Department. However, the problems inherent in the framework of natural resource tenure were not addressed by this project, which focussed on rights to domestic usage of small quantities of NTFPs from forest reserves and farmland, and not utilisation for livelihoods, and on the production of a narrow range of NTFPs in community nurseries.
1.4 Supplementary livelihoods Annex 1: 21 Around 50 percent of the sample farmers had supplementary off-farm incomes, including 46 percent of men and 56 percent of women. The main off-farm incomes for men come from natural resources (eg. charcoal, crafts), artisan activities, and petty trading. For women the main off-farm incomes consist of petty trading and preparation of cooked food. Migrant Dagaaba women also brew sorghum beer (pito), and this leads to increased demand for sorghum in the agricultural economy. Pettytrading and preparation of cooked foods are more important in market towns, such as Subinso or Nsawkaw. The main artisan activity carried out by men is tailoring. This accounts for 5 percent of male off-farm incomes. Others include bicycle repair, masonry, blacksmithing, aluminium pot manufacture, and radio repair. For women the main artisan activity is dressmaking. While many male off-farm incomes are dependent upon natural resource exploitation, outside the production of charcoal, very few farmers have developed other viable source of income. Women’s access to natural resource exploitation is extremely limited, and virtually confined to charcoal production and selling. Widespread participation in charcoal production is limited to a handful of settlements in which the techniques of charcoal production exist, and where the necessary infrastructure to support a viable trade has been created (eg. Weila and Mansie). At Nsawkaw, charcoal is largely produced by specialised migrant charcoal burners. This lack of development of crafts based on natural resource utilisation is mirrored by a marked lack of development support from externally funded government and donor projects for natural resource development. It is also reflected in a hostile policy environment, which creates a framework for natural resources tenure that excludes farmers, legislation that criminalizes their utilisation of tree resources, and environmental policies which view off-farm incomes based on natural resources as a cause of environmental degradation. This lack of development of a popular craft-based natural resource sector, is in marked contrast to the importance of forest resources in national export trade, and reflects the appropriation of forest resources for export trade and the influence of industrial concession-holders, at the expense of small rural producers. Table 1.4 Main off-farm incomes Percentage of farmers engaged in off-farm activities Men Weila Mansie Subinso Nsawkaw- Tanoso- Njau Kokoago Buoku Total Off-farm incomes 43 50 51 48 39 46 46 Natural resource 18 43 11 10 6 4 15 exploitation charcoal 11 39 4 5 . . 9 Hunting 3.5 4 . . . 4 1.5 Herbalist . . 2 5 . . 1.5 Carpenter . . . . 3 . 0.5
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Final Technical Report: NRSP Projec
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TABLE OF CONTENTS Page List of Acro
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ANNEXES ANNEX 1: A Brief History of
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Abbreviations and Acronyms AgGDP CF
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3 3. The ways in which multiple sta
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5 Underpinning the study is a conce
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7 4. Outputs This study is of a res
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9 Figure 4.1 The Brong Ahafo Region
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11 3. Recent disputes over charcoal
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13 ! The local interests which can
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15 The first purpose of this report
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17 ! Where densities are higher, th
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19 In recent years, new factors hav
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21 4.1.8 Main circuits for land acq
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23 With the increasing commodificat
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25 In many instances, the relations
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27 environment. The framework of na
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29 Table 4. 5 Distribution of crops
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31 4.1.13 Agricultural intensificat
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33 economy may also have unforeseen
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35 Table 4.7 Usage of inputs and me
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37 In the more northerly yam farmin
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39 4.1.17 Farmer adaptation and inn
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41 Systems perspectives have domina
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43 and youth migrate in search of a
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45 the northern transition zone whe
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47 As regards decentralised environ
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49 These three are not mutually exc
Page 57 and 58: 51 4.2 Output 2: ‘Potential alter
Page 59 and 60: 53 It requires District departments
Page 61 and 62: 55 government will strengthen natio
Page 63 and 64: 57 4.2.5 Entry Points for research
Page 65 and 66: 59 6. This information should also
Page 67 and 68: 61 The final output of this compone
Page 69 and 70: 63 4.3 Output 3: ‘Increased aware
Page 71 and 72: 65 4.3 Comparison between planned a
Page 73 and 74: 67 The statistics used here were si
Page 75 and 76: 69 5.1.2 Study sites " In the north
Page 77 and 78: 71 Geography, University of Ghana,
Page 79 and 80: 73 6. Environmental Assessment 6.1
Page 81 and 82: 75 7. Contribution of Outputs As a
Page 83 and 84: 77 The District administration is a
Page 85 and 86: CN00/057: ‘Poverty dimensions of
Page 87 and 88: 81 Activities: Milestones: Budget:
Page 89 and 90: Annex 1: 1 Annex 1: A brief history
Page 91 and 92: Annex 1: 3 At both state farms the
Page 93 and 94: Annex 1: 5 and knowledge. Thus, ong
Page 95 and 96: Annex 1: 7 Regions, originally to t
Page 97 and 98: Annex 1: 9 • Rights of spouses. W
Page 99 and 100: Annex 1: 11 Table 1.3 Sources of me
Page 101 and 102: Annex 1: 13 reflected in the larger
Page 103 and 104: Figure 1.2 (continued) Annex 1: 15
Page 105 and 106: Annex 1: 17 User rights in land bec
Page 107: Annex 1: 19 1.2.4 Migrants’ Acces
Page 111 and 112: Annex 2: 1 Annex 2: Cropping system
Page 113 and 114: Annex 2: 3 Table 2.1 Distribution o
Page 115 and 116: Annex 2: 5 Table 2.2 Crops cultivat
Page 117 and 118: Annex 2: 7 Table 2.3 Percentage of
Page 119 and 120: Annex 2: 9 Given the abundance of l
Page 121 and 122: Annex 2: 11 Table 2.6 Fallow interv
Page 123 and 124: Annex 2: 13 Table 2.8 Usage of inpu
Page 125 and 126: Annex 2: 15 2.5 Case studies 2.5.1
Page 127 and 128: Annex 2: 17 around Ejura, for insta
Page 129 and 130: Annex 2: 19 Given recent dramatic c
Page 131 and 132: Annex 2: 21 This capacity for adapt
Page 133 and 134: Annex 2: 23 Table 2.11 Tree varieti
Page 135 and 136: Annex 2: 25 Within charcoal produci
Page 137 and 138: Annex 2: 27 cocoa, which was plante
Page 139 and 140: Annex 2: 29 interest to the researc
Page 141 and 142: Annex 3: 1 Annex 3: Managing the En
Page 143 and 144: Annex 3: 3 for local government bas
Page 145 and 146: Figure 3.1: Structure of the Distri
Page 147 and 148: Annex 3: 7 and a functioning secret
Page 149 and 150: Annex 3: 9 The Forestry Service has
Page 151 and 152: Annex 3: 11 council, their mandate
Page 153 and 154: Annex 3: 13 the needs of their cons
Page 155 and 156: Annex 3: 15 Given the poor linkages
Page 157 and 158: Annex 3: 17 transport the charcoal.
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Annex 3: 19 produced from live tree
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Annex 3: 21 does the extent of thei
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Annex 3: 23 1978, the PNDC formed P
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Annex 3: 25 ! Integrating sector pl
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Annex 3: 27 (13 districts) = 22 By
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Annex 3: 29 argue, the reforms are
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Appendix to Annex 3: 2 administrati
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Appendix to Annex 3: 4 The overall
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Appendix to Annex 3: 6 i. Problems
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Appendix to Annex 3: 8 c) Tradition
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Annex 4: 1 Annex 4: The Way Forward
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Annex 4: 3 4.1.1 Institutional mech
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Annex 4: 5 be submitted to the dist
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Annex 4: 7 and tractor ploughing, t
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Annex 4: 9 4.4 The Proposed Program
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Annex 4: 11 To cover the second of
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Annex 4: 13 Coursey, D.H. (1976) "T
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