Desktop Study on - Regional Climate Change Adaptation ...

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<strong>Desktop</strong> <strong>Study</strong> 1998 El Niño/La Niña episode put the severe economic impact of a total of P7.6 billion in rice and corn production losses. The ENSO has impacts on all segments of society, among which the most affected are resource constrained farmers whose livelihoods heavily relies on the changing seasons. This situation is most apparent among rain fed farmers who are exclusively dependent on rainfall to irrigate their crops (ibid). As a consequence, those most affected are reinforced to suffer from poverty (World Bank, 2005). A study of PCW reveals that most vulnerable areas invariably experience decline in rice production levels from 20% to 100% (of 90-100 cavans/ha) and escalation in production cost by at least 25% during periods of drought (Lasco, 2006). During floods, most of the vulnerable areas suffer between 40-100% (of 60 - 90 cavans/ha) loss in production. It has also been found that the low yield of food grain, combined with environmental stresses like prolonged dry spells and excessive rains, leads to loss of crop values. For example, Isabela had faced three consecutive crop failures because of erratic rainfall and flooding in 2005. Some researchers observed a fall in student enrolment in the province of Albay because of the extreme events such as storm surges with floods and volcanic lahar (Resurreccion et al., 2008). This led to reconfiguring livelihoods including increase of child labor and urban migration. Vulnerabilities and Adaptation in the Socio-Economic Sector Vulnerability of Areas The vulnerable places in the PCW identified by the local communities include low-lying flood-prone settlement areas, agricultural areas prone to floods and droughts, dying streams/rivers, and farmlands at the tail-end of irrigation canal (Lasco, 2006). The interesting finding is that these places are highly congruent with the result of GIS-generated levels of vulnerability. Hence, the study of the PCW suggested combining the two methods for identifying the vulnerable areas as a comprehensive assessment of vulnerable areas. Vulnerability of People Among the differentiated socio-economic groups, namely, small farmers, average farmers and fishermen, employees and small entrepreneurs, and rich farmers, the small farmers were identified as the most vulnerable by local community members (Lasco, 2006). It is to be noted that even though the climate-related losses may not be destructive at the community level, the damage climate-related losses generate to the household level could have lasting impacts and lead to a chain-reaction of negative effects (ibid). The nature of impacts of climate variability and extremes seems to be almost the same among the above-mentioned groups. However, the small farmers were identified to have the high degree of negative impacts and vulnerability due to lack of access to, or control of, reproductive resources such as small land and little capital, as well as due to ineffectiveness of adaptation strategies. The study of the PCW further examined vulnerability of people to future climate variability and extremes. The projected climate change impacts with relation to food availability and crop production, livelihood, health and water supply, potential adaptation strategies and the degree of vulnerability of the abovementioned socio-economic groups were described (Lasco, 2006: 59). The degree of negative impacts and vulnerability of small farmers will exacerbate due to lack of capacity to cope with the negative impacts. For example, not only will their crop production decline, but they are likely to be exposed to starvation, eventually resulting in malnutrition and other kinds of health diseases. Factors influencing vulnerability were highlighted in the study of the PCW, with a focus on socio-economic circumstances as well as in the socio-political and institutional contexts. In terms of socio-economic factors, farm income, monthly food expenditures and farm distance to market were found significantly associated with vulnerability (Lasco, 2006). The more dependent people are on their farm income, the more vulnerable they become to climate-related events. Also, people who spend less on food due to their limited financial capacity are more vulnerable. Finally, households in far-flung areas tend to be more vulnerable because of being cut off from market during the rainy season and flooding. In addition to socio economic factors, the socio-political and institutional aspects also affect vulnerability. The quality of services provided by organizations that the farmers join matters for reducing vulnerability. Also the larger the farm size, the more vulnerable the owners become. Furthermore, demographic research shows that women were found to be more vulnerable than men while migrants were more vulnerable than the original inhabitants. 62
Assessment of Capacity Gaps and Needs of South East Asia Countries in Addressing Impacts, Vulnerability and Adaptation to Climate Variability and Climate Change Adaptation Bicol University identified local adaptive strategies to changing weather conditions including increased rice cultivation in upland areas with 14 varieties, planting of fruit trees, digging canals for fish farming and planting root crops (Resurreccion et al., 2008). In some resettlement areas of Albay, a number of welloff farmers started to cultivate high value vegetables whose crop maturation could occur within a short period. This practice is expected to yield increase as well as water storage from rainfall. Marginalized farmers cannot take the risk of experimenting with new farming technologies due to little access to financial capital for new inputs (Resurreccion et al., 2008). Responding to this situation and in order to avoid the above-mentioned social impacts of extreme events, the engineering department of Bicol University has invented a mobile coconut shredder for upland farmers. The office of the Department of Agriculture in Albay have also been forming farmer’s groups for introducing agribusiness, which enable farmers to gain farm inputs for crop diversification and food for work for rice production subsidy (ibid). The processes in which some research programs of climate change and adaptation on agriculture and water resources were conducted involved onsite investigations and stakeholder consultation (ibid). These processes themselves have enhanced the adaptation capacity by making a case for a) improved decision-making and coping strategies of farmers through access to scientific climate and crop forecasting information; b) recognizing that multiple stresses arising from climate change spur varied coping strategies; c) local stakeholder adaptation strategies could inform planned adaptation options; and that d) vulnerability varies among different social groups depending on their assets and arising from combined climate and non-climate factors (Tibig and Lansigan, 2008, De los Santos, Lansigan and Hansen, 2007, and Pulhin et al., 2008, cited in Resurreccion et al., 2008) Acosta-Michlik and Espaldon (2008) pointed out that social values and network could indicate the factors that determine individuals’ maladaptive responses such as ignoring economic opportunities or climate change risks. However, social networks are often limited to relatives and neighbors as reflected in the case study of four types of farmers (ibid). Cooperatives and local officers, who have access to technical knowledge on adaptation, do not usually interact with the vulnerable nor take much role on exchanging information in the network. Hence, it is suggested to improve social interaction with the vulnerable people in order to reduce their vulnerability. Gaps Identified in Programs and Studies Research Gaps Research on non-climatic and socio-economic related factors such as migration and urbanisation needs to be conducted for the projected water demand from the industrial, domestic and irrigation sectors. A vulnerability assessment study on the Angat and Lake Lanao reservoirs in 1999 pointed out that the projected water demand for domestic use would increase until 2050 due to the expected rapid migration of people to Metro Manila and suburbs and accelerated industrialization (NIA, 1997 cited in Jose and Cruz, 1999). Considering the increasing demand for water as a consequence of both extreme events and changing social and economic environments, the holistic approach should be employed for developing adaptation strategies. Water reallocation was highlighted as an adaptation option (Jose and Cruz, 1999). For reallocation procedures, water rights are a key issue to determine and consider. Hence, institutional aspects, including the endowment and entitlement, as well as socioeconomic conditions that could determine access to water need to be reviewed. Based on this research, an effective and equitable distribution of water should be implemented to ensure that the certain sectors and groups of people do not become vulnerable even after reallocation or redistribution of water. Furthermore, comprehensive management of degraded watershed was identified as an adaptation option with emphasis on regulation of excessive logging and shifting cultivation in the watershed. These economic activities as income resource cause widespread decline and resulting erosion and siltation of rivers, lakes and reservoirs (Santos 1997 cited in Jose and Cruz 1999). This clearly shows that adaptation schemes adopted in watershed areas need to reflect on human induced impacts on water sector. Vulnerability index developed as data analysis method shows the gaps between the value of vulnerability weighted by the researchers and local communities (Lasco, 2006). The values of the index are relative since it depends on the perception of whoever is giving the weights. Hence, it is suggested 63
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RESEARCH SYNTHESIS ON INDONESIA 69
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DPA DEVELOPMENT PARTNERSHIP IN ACTI
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NSCCC NATIONAL STEERING COMMITTEE O
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FIGURE 19: PERCENTAGE OF DAMAGE (US
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY INTRODUCTION Sout
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put in place management systems for
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There are several good initiatives
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Conclusion This study takes precede
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Assessment of Capacity Gaps and Nee
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Being heavily affected by the rainf
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Boer, R. (2009). A model for assess
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Jose, A. M. and N. A. Cruz (1999).
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Ne Winn. (2007). The status of GHG
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12/23/2009 from http://www.phnompen
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Secretariat AdaptationKnowledgePlat
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