Work and Leisure

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Stress and working parents 165What was less predictable was the lack of variation in stress by gender,income or level of education, at least among individuals in this sample. It wasonly when we divided our sample into high and low stress groups that moreexpected patterns of behaviour were evident. High stress individuals, forexample, show more work–family conflict, that is, they are more likely to feelguilty about not spending enough time with their family and unhappy withtheir role as partner and parent.In the case of high stress women, they appear to fit the image of the‘harried’ worker. What is perhaps most disconcerting is that they do not havethe benefit of ‘moderating’ stress that others experience when being at home.This seems particularly troublesome, as they may be less likely to have theopportunity to recover from the daily hassles of their jobs and the demandsof their households. Perhaps the greatest challenge for researchers workingwith stress is to find those activities and situations that precipitate stress andthose that enhance recovery toward a state of equilibrium.What our results show is that it is not the job itself that creates stress. Stressdoes not appear related to whether one is a doctor, banker or teacher, orwhether one earns $70,000 or $150,000 a year. It may be that job performancestandards and responsibilities permeate all aspects of the workforce. Thestockbroker and the nurse both appear to be internalising the demands oftheir work and it is this internalisation that appears related to feelings ofstress, that is, the feeling that they have to work at home on the weekends or inthe evenings or thinking about work when at home. Both high stress mothersand fathers feel physically drained and exhausted. And not surprisingly, lesspositive relationships at home between husband and wife are related tohigh levels of couple stress. These results seem to suggest that stress is lessstructurally determined and more personally and relationally situated.Notes1 In our current related work, we find that stress declines in intensity when anindividual gains a sense of control over a situation and experiences a decrease infeelings of frustration.2 The average number of beeps responded to was 43 beeps per person over thecourse of seven days. There was not a significant difference between the number ofbeeps answered by high (43.24) or low (41.09) stress individuals. Mothers tendedto respond to more beeps (45.61) than fathers (41.09).3 Among participants in the sample, 223 individuals were identified as having lowstress and 171 were identified as having high stress.4 In preliminary analyses, we did find that single employed mothers (women whohave been separated, divorced, single or widowed) are significantly more stressedthan married employed mothers (t = 2.01, p
166 Schneider, Ainbinder, Csikszentmihalyiwork stress beeps. Next, stress scores were aggregated on the person level. Thus,each person had a mean stress transition score for leaving home and going towork. The same procedure was followed to calculate going home from work.7 There was no gender difference among the split couples: 35 of the fathers had highstress whereas 36 of the mothers reported high levels of stress.8 In some additional analyses we found that slightly elevated levels of stress werepositively associated with enjoyment and excitement.ReferencesBronfenbrenner, U. (1996) The State of Americans: This Generation and the Next.New York: Free Press.Cannon, W. B. (1932) The Wisdom of the Body. New York: W. W. Norton.Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1997) Finding Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Experience.New York: Harper and Row.Csikszentmihalyi, M. and Larson, R. (1984) Being Adolescent: Conflict and Growth inthe Teenage Years. New York: Basic Books.Csikszentmihalyi, M. and Larson, R. (1987) Validity and reliability of the experiencesamplingmethod. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 175: 526–36.Csikszentmihalyi, M. and Schneider, B. (2000) Becoming Adult: How TeenagersPrepare for the World of Work. New York: Basic Books.Deese, J. and Lazarus, R. S. (1952) The effects of psychological stress upon perceptual-motorperformance. United States Air Force Human Resources ResearchCenter Research Bulletin no. 52–19, v. 15.Eriksen, C. W., Lazarus, R. S. and Strange, J. R. (1952) Psychological stress and itspersonality correlates. Journal of Personality 20: 277–86.Garièpy, J. (1995) The evolution of a developmental science: early determinism,modern interactionism, and new systemic approach. Annals of Child Development:A Research Annual 11: 167–222.Hill, J. E., Hawkins, A. J., Ferris, M. and Weitzman, M. (2001) Finding an extra day aweek: the positive influence of perceived job flexibility on work and family lifebalance. Family Relations 50: 49–58.Hochschild, A. R. (1997) The Time Bind: When Work Becomes Home and HomeBecomes Work. New York: Metropolitan.Kahn, R. L. (1980) Conflict, ambiguity and overload: three elements in job stress. InD. Katz, R. L. Kahn and J. S. Adams (eds) The Study of Organizations: Findingsfrom Field and Laboratory. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.Lazarus, R. S. (1993) Coping theory and research: past, present, and future. PsychosomaticMedicine 55: 234–47.Lazarus, R. S. (2000) Toward better research on stress and coping. American Psychologist55: 665–73.Lazarus, R. S. and Eriksen, C. W. (1952) Effects of failure stress upon skilledperformance. Journal of Experimental Psychology 43: 100–5.Lazarus, R. S. and Folkman, S. (1984) Stress, Appraisal, and Coping. New York:Springer.Lazarus, R. S., Deese, J. and Osler, S. F. (1952) The effects of psychological stressupon performance. Psychological Bulletin 49: 293–317.Link, B. G., Lennon, M. C. and Dohrenwend, B. P. (1993) Socioeconomic status and
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Work and LeisureHere is a book that
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First published 2004by Routledge27
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viContentsPART IIQuality of life an
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viiiIllustrations7.1 Time-use and p
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xNotes on contributorsArts, Manches
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PrefaceThe year 2000 was the twenty
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IntroductionJohn T. Haworth and A.
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Introduction 3this came more from w
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Introduction 5website www.positivep
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Introduction 7differences in men’
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Introduction 9Sampling Method, ques
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ReferencesIntroduction 11American P
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Chapter 1A brief history of work an
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Hunter-gatherer societiesHistory of
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History of work 19morality, involvi
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History of work 21on the same level
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History of work 23task-orientation
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History of work 25ResistanceChanges
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History of work 27In the 1930s, the
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History of work 29Figure 1.1 Estima
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History of work 31While industriali
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History of work 33Thompson, E. P. (
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The devil still makes work 35fundin
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The devil still makes work 37no dou
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The devil still makes work 39cushio
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The devil still makes work 41marria
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The devil still makes work 43differ
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The devil still makes work 45museum
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The devil still makes work 47distri
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The devil still makes work 49the pu
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Chapter 3Postmodern work and leisur
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Postmodern work and leisure 53in th
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Postmodern work and leisurePostmode
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Postmodern work and leisure 57servi
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The ‘Brazilianization thesis’:
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Postmodern work and leisure 61In te
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Postmodern work and leisure 63‘wi
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Postmodern work and leisure 65over-
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Chapter 4Gender, work and leisureJu
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Gender, work and leisure 69I believ
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Gender, work and leisure 71and they
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Gender, work and leisure 73the impa
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Gender, work and leisure 75worked l
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Gender, work and leisure 77Stanley
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Gender, work and leisure 79knowledg
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Gender, work and leisure 81leisure
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Gender, work and leisure 83Deem, R.
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Chapter 5The economics of workand l
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UK evidenceThe economics of work an
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The economics of work and leisure 8
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Table 5.5 Hours worked, UK, USA, Ja
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Chapter 6Looking backPerspectives o
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Perspectives on leisure-work relati
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Table 6.1 Wilensky and Parker: rela
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Perspectives on leisure-work relati
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Page 136: Part IIQuality of life and workand
Page 139 and 140: 124 Jiri Zuzanekthe association bet
Page 141 and 142: 126 Jiri ZuzanekWhat makes people f
Page 143 and 144: 128 Jiri ZuzanekTable 7.3 Feelings
Page 145 and 146: 130 Jiri ZuzanekChoice and control
Page 147 and 148: 132 Jiri ZuzanekTime pressure and p
Page 149 and 150: 134 Jiri Zuzanek1983). Similarly, i
Page 151 and 152: 136 Jiri ZuzanekIn general, the eff
Page 153 and 154: 138 Jiri Zuzanekbeneficial health e
Page 155 and 156: 140 Jiri Zuzanekdeterminants of hum
Page 157 and 158: 142 Jiri ZuzanekFrank, J. W. (1995)
Page 159 and 160: 144 Jiri ZuzanekZuzanek, J. and Bec
Page 161 and 162: 146 Schneider, Ainbinder, Csikszent
Page 169 and 170: Figure 8.2 Time spent working at ho
Page 171 and 172: Figure 8.4 Work and family
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Page 175 and 176: Table 8.4 Social experiences of str
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Page 183 and 184: Chapter 9Work, leisure and well-bei
Page 185 and 186: 170 John T. Haworthwe passively acc
Page 187 and 188: 172 John T. Haworthnow a key elemen
Page 189 and 190: 174 John T. Haworthanalyses of emot
Page 191 and 192: 176 John T. Haworththe activity at
Page 193 and 194: 178 John T. Haworthinfluence of con
Page 195 and 196: 180 John T. Haworthit has to be use
Page 197 and 198: 182 John T. HaworthHaworth, J. T. a
Page 199 and 200: Chapter 10Leisure and HealthSeppo E
Page 201 and 202: 186 Seppo E. Iso-Ahola and Roger C.
Page 215 and 216: Chapter 11Serious leisure, voluntee
Page 217 and 218: 202 Robert A. StebbinsCareer volunt
Page 219 and 220: 204 Robert A. Stebbinscosts are see
Page 221 and 222: 206 Robert A. Stebbinswithin one or
Page 223 and 224: 208 Robert A. Stebbinsof achievemen
Page 225 and 226: 210 Robert A. Stebbinsthe president
Page 227 and 228: 212 Robert A. StebbinsUnruh, D. R.
Page 229 and 230: 214 John T. Haworth and A. J. VealH
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216 John T. Haworth and A. J. Vealc
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218 John T. Haworth and A. J. Vealt
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220 John T. Haworth and A. J. Vealc
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222 John T. Haworth and A. J. Veald
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224 John T. Haworth and A. J. Veale
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226 John T. Haworth and A. J. VealM
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228 John T. Haworth and A. J. Vealh
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230 John T. Haworth and A. J. Veala
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232 Author indexDeci, E. 188, 197De
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234 Author indexPrimeau, C. 170, 18
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Subject indexactivity rates 91alien
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238 Subject indexwork-centredness 3
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