Work and Leisure

178 John T. Haworthinfluence of control on well-being can operate by different pathways inmales and females.An important development of the model, proposed by Haworth (1997: seeFigure 9.1) is the inclusion of the role of enjoyment in well-being. In line withresearch into enjoyment (e.g. Csikszentmihalyi and Csikszentmihalyi 1988;Clarke and Haworth 1994; Haworth and Evans 1995; Bryce and Haworth2002), the model suggests that enjoyment and situational factors are conjoined,and that enjoyment can give rise directly to well-being. Research intoa small group of female clerical workers by Haworth et al. (1997), used questionnairesdeveloped at Manchester (Haworth 1997) to measure the PEIs,standard scales to measure well-being, and a standard measure of locus ofcontrol (Rotter 1966), which is the degree to which an individual feels thatbehavioural outcomes are due to personal effort (internal locus of control)rather than to chance (external locus of control). The Experience SamplingMethod was also used over a period of one week to measure positive subjectivestates, including enjoyment. The results, illustrated in Figure 9.1, showed,in line with previous research, that several of the PEIs were associated withmeasures of well-being. Also in line with previous research, locus of controlwas associated with measures of well-being, with internal locus of controlindividuals having better scores. Internal locus of control individuals hadbetter scores on several PEIs; and also greater levels of enjoyment, interestand control, and wished to be doing activities more, than external locus ofcontrol individuals, measured over the week of the study. Path analysisshowed that for some measures of well-being, locus of control had a greaterindirect effect on well-being through the PEIs than a direct effect. The studysuggested that enjoyment and feelings of control might enhance locus ofcontrol, which in turn may lead to enhanced well-being either directly orthrough greater access to PEIs.Figure 9.1 A model of well-being