Work and Leisure

Introduction 9Sampling Method, questionnaire surveys and qualitative interviews. By wayof background, it is noted that, in the past few decades, the number of dualearnerfamilies in the United States has increased substantially. Balancing thedemands of work and family, maintaining a healthy marriage and providingadequate care for one’s children are just a few of the demands that createstress for dual-career couples. Parents in the study were drawn from middleclassand upper-middle-class communities. Stress was found to be negativelycorrelated with the positive emotional states of happiness, enjoyment andfeeling good and strong, and with self-esteem. The study found a lack ofvariation in stress by gender, income or level of education, though this may berelated to the range of people included in the sample. The study found thatthe relationship between stress and excitement is relatively low in comparisonto other emotions. The authors consider that some stress may be a reasonableresponse when attempting tasks that involve some uncertainty. However, highlevels of stress, sustained over time, are associated with a lack of control overone’s activities and a sense of frustration – conclusions similar to thosepresented in Chapter 7.In Chapter 9 John T. Haworth presents a model of well-being focusing onthe characteristics of persons and situations and the pivotal role played byenjoyment. The model is based on nine ‘situational’ factors or PrincipalEnvironmental Influences identified by Warr (1987) as being important forwell-being, namely: opportunity for control; environmental clarity; opportunityfor skill use; externally generated goals; variety; opportunity for interpersonalcontact; valued social position; availability of money; and physicalsecurity. These features of the environment are considered to interact withcharacteristics of the person to facilitate or constrain psychological well-beingor mental health. An important development of the model is the inclusion ofthe role of enjoyment in well-being. Research using the Experience SamplingMethod suggests that enjoyment and situational factors are conjoined, andthat enjoyment can give rise directly to well-being. Also, that enjoyment andfeelings of control might enhance a person’s locus of control disposition,which in turn may lead to enhanced well-being either directly or throughgreater access to Principal Environmental Influences. Research into locus ofcontrol suggests that positive successful life experiences increase internallocus of control beliefs through optimistic attributions. These may increaseconfidence, initiative and positive motivation, and thus lead to more successfulexperiences. Positive subjective states may influence personal factors, suchas locus of control, through both reflective and non-reflective interactions:through actively thinking about situations and just being in enjoyable situations.The chapter concludes that social science research into well-being,work and leisure can be valuable, but that implementation is embedded insocio-political processes and requires negotiation and compromise.Seppo E. Iso-Ahola and Roger C. Mannell, in Chapter 10, examine thereciprocal relationship between leisure and health. They recognise that many