Work and Leisure

Work, leisure and well-being 177very much in control of my actions and my world. I feel like I am growingand using my best talents and skills; I am master of my situation.(Csikszentmihalyi and Csikszentmihalyi 1988: 121)Respondents were asked how often in a week they experienced a similar stateof mind, selecting from 1 (not at all), 2 (once a week), 3 (several times aweek), 4 (every day), 5 (several times a day). They were also asked to indicatewhether these experiences occurred in work or leisure and give a briefdescription of the types of activities which gave rise to these experiences. Theresults showed work to be the primary source of flow for professional workers,whereas for blue-collar women it was leisure. The greatest source of flowin leisure was found to be in interpersonal relationships for both groups,particularly those with children. Using a similar questionnaire, a study ofmale and female office workers by Bryce and Haworth (2002) showed flow tobe associated with well-being. Results also emphasised the importance ofinterpersonal relationships for flow in women. This is consistent with previousresearch indicating the importance of social interaction in leisure forwomen, arguably resulting from gender demands (Deem 1986; Green et al.1990; Shaw 1994; Samuel 1996).A model of well-beingAn influential model of the influence of characteristics of situations andpersons on well-being has been proposed by Warr (1987, 1999). Warr (1987)identified nine ‘situational’ factors, or Principal Environmental Influences(PEIs) important for well-being, measured on several dimensions. Thesefactors are opportunity for control, environmental clarity, opportunity forskill use, externally generated goals, variety, opportunity for interpersonalcontact, valued social position, availability of money, and physical security.These features of the environment are considered to interact with characteristicsof the person to facilitate or constrain psychological well-being ormental health. Warr produced a classification of ‘enduring’ personal characteristicswhich interact with situational factors on mental health. Theseperson factors include baseline mental health, demographic factors such asage and gender, values, and abilities. Baseline mental health includes severalfeatures often considered as elements of personality, such as neuroticism,self-confidence, hardiness and locus of control.The nine factors have been devised in the light of considerable researchinto both jobs and unemployment, which Warr (1987) summarises.Research conducted at Manchester University (summarised in Haworth1997), shows strong associations between each of the nine PrincipalEnvironmental Influences and measures of mental health, and also discriminatesbetween patterns of PEIs important for well-being in differentoccupational groups. Bryce and Haworth (2003) have also shown that the