Asian Transformations in Action - Api-fellowships.org

156 SPECIFICITIES OF GLOBALIZATIONBuddhist monks and novices on January 24, 2004, inwhich two were killed; bomb attacks on August 22,2004 in Yala, injuring 13 people and damaging morethan 30 vehicles; the assassination of 95 village headmenand assistant headmen (Buddhists and Muslims) bymilitants from January to June 2005; bomb attacksat a hotel, a restaurant and convenience stores on July14, 2005, injuring 17 Buddhists and Muslims; theattacks on schools and teachers in 2004-2007, in which71 teachers (including Muslims) were killed, morethan 100 teachers were injured, and 170 schools wereburned down; the attack on a commuter van on March14, 2007, where eight Buddhist passengers were shotto death at close range, execution-style; the killing oftwo Muslim men by militants in a drive-by shootingon April 14, 2007; the assassination of a 29-year oldMuslim (a local government official) in Naratiwat onJune 22, 2007; and the killing of a Muslim vendor inhis pick-up truck by militants on August 13, 2007.There is no doubt that such non-state groups’ actionswere terrorism, terror attacks, or terror related actionsas they systematically and/or repeatedly killed orintimidated civilians and spread fear among thecommunities.From a historical perspective, such attacks are notisolated or independent events. They have their ownhistorical traits. The groups’ actions in Indonesiastemmed from the passions of its members to establishan Islamic state of Indonesia, which was first promotedby Kartosuwiryo in 1936. (Kartosuwiryo laterestablished Darul Islam (DI) in 1947, Tentara IslamIndonesia (Indonesian Islamic Army, TII) in 1948, andNegara Islam Indonesia (Indonesian Islamic State, NII)in 1949.) The recent attacks were contributed to by therise of Jemaah Islamiyah (JI), which vowed to establishsuch a perceived ideal state. In fact, JI was establisheddue to a rift in the DI/NII leadership between AbdullahSungkar, the founder of JI, and Ajengan Masduki.In its development, it had a shared ideology with AlQaeda and turned its target to American interests. Inthe Philippine case, terrorism is rooted in the historicaldisputes concerning the forced incorporation of theMoro Sultanates into the Philippine state. The riseof the Abu Sayyaf Group (ASG), which was foundedby Abdurajak Janjalani (a former member of MNLF,or the Moro National Liberation Front), has highlycontributed to these attacks. In its development, theASG had a link with Al Qaeda operatives and becamenotorious for its kidnapping-for-ransom activities,particularly against Westerners. As for the Thai case, theissue is similar to that of the Philippines, namely theforced incorporation of the former Sultanate of Pattaniinto the Thai state. In the recent terror attacks, thecentral figure is Barisan Revolusi Nasional-Koordinasi(National Revolution Front-Coordinate, BRN-C),particularly its mobile combat unit known as RundaKumpulan Kecil (RKK, or small patrol unit). BRN-Chas a loose, cell-based network with a broader newgeneration of village-based separatist militants whocalled themselves Pejuang Kemerdekaan Patani (PattaniFreedom Fighters), whom local people refer to by thegeneric term “pejuangs” (freedom fighters). While RKKalso belongs to the pejuangs, not all pejuangs are themembers of BRN-C. It is also important to note thatnot all pejuangs attack civilians.In short, the Philippine and Thai cases have a sharedhistorical origin centering on the issue of regaining their“occupied” land. This is totally different from that ofIndonesia, which originated from a strong passion toestablish a perceived ideal state.Indonesia The Philippines ThailandUS invasion of Afghanistan and Iraq,where many Muslims have been killedIsrael’s occupation of Palestine, wheremany Muslims have been killed andare living in miseryGrievance on secular state ofIndonesiaPerceived suppression of Islamicmovements to establish an Islamicstate and/or sharia lawGrievances on perceivedChristianization and againstChristians in the communal-religiousconflictsGrievance on the suppressionof Bangsamoro identity (e.g.,transmigration program,Filipinization)State-treatment of Muslims (e.g.,Jabidah) and injusticeGrievance on secular state of thePhilippines, particularly in MindanaoNatural resource exploitation inMindanao (ancestral domains)Perceived discrimination andmarginalization in economicdevelopmentGrievance on the suppression ofethnic Malay identity (e.g., language/education policies, Thainization)Injustice towards and state-treatmentof Muslims (e.g., Krue Se, Tak Bai)Grievance on secular state ofThailand, particularly in thesouthernmost provincesNatural resource exploitation in thesouthernmost provincesPerceived discrimination andmarginalization in economicdevelopmentTable 1: Rough ranking of main grievances in Indonesia, the Philippines and Thailand.Asian Transformations in ActionThe Work of the 2006/2007 API Fellows