Asian Transformations in Action - Api-fellowships.org

162 SPECIFICITIES OF GLOBALIZATIONbe tracked down by security and intelligence officials,leaderless jihadists could still find their own way tofurther their goals through the virtual network.With this kind of network, the terror groups can easilybuild communities that resemble what Ben Andersoncalled “imagined communities.” However, the“imagined communities” here are not related to a senseof ethnicity, but a sense of religiosity where the ideologyof violence is used to cement the concerns of thesecommunities. This kind of network is more difficult todeal with compared to an actual network as its drive islocated in the minds of individuals. This is a challengeto civil societies advocating peace or to those who workfor a more peaceful world.ConclusionWhile Asia has promisingly transformed itself towardpolitical maturity and/or economic advancement, itfaces imminent threats that could undermine its currentand future advancements, either locally or regionally.One of the threats is non-state groups’ actions in theform of terrorism or terror attacks. Indonesia, thePhilippines, and Thailand are countries in SoutheastAsia that have suffered from such actions.Such non-state groups’ actions have their own origins.In the Philippine and Thai cases, they have originatedfrom a dispute about claimed areas (those of theSultanate of Sulu/Maguindanao and the Sultanate ofPattani, respectively). Insurgencies attempting to regainthe perceived lost areas and create an independentstate have led to the emergence of groups that useterror tactics to further their goals. In the Indonesiancase, terrorism has originated from a strong passionto establish a perceived ideal state. The recent lethalattacks, however, are strongly related to US policies andactions in world politics.The grievance approach is insufficient to explainthe phenomenon of these non-state groups’ actions.The greed explanation also has some limitations inexplaining the phenomenon. Alternatively, the ideologyof violence has considerably contributed to these actionsin the researched countries.While the group’s actual network is vulnerable to thestate security apparatus, the virtual network is moreresilient since the core force in this network lies in theminds of individuals, cemented with a shared ideologyof violence. The use of this type of network has beenobserved in the Indonesian case. In the future, thenetwork could contribute to the establishment of awider, leaderless movement with its own “imaginedcommunities.” It is not exaggerating, therefore, to saythat the members of such “imagined communities”could carry out independent terror attacks withoutthe command of, or being tied to, certain actualorganizations.Due to the complexity of the issues, multi-dimensionalefforts should be carried out to overcome the problems.The use of non-conventional approaches (i.e., nonmilitaryapproaches) should be given emphasis,particularly through investments in education,economic empowerment and the promotion of religioustolerance.REFERENCESAbuza, Zachary. Militant Islam in Southeast Asia: Crucible ofTerror. Boulder, London: Lynne Rienner Publisher, 2003.Abinales, Patricio and Donna Amoroso. State and Society inthe Philippines. Pasig City, Philippines: 2005.Adisaputra, Asep. Imam Samudra Berjihad. Jakarta: PTIK,2006.Bale, Jeffrey. The Abu Sayyaf Group in its Philippine andInternational Contexts: A Profile and WMD Threat Assessment.Monterey Terrorism Research and Education Program,Monterey Institute of International Studies, December2003, (accessed onFebruary 15, 2007).Barreveld, Dirk J. Terrorism in the Philippines. San Jose, NewYork, Lincoln, Shanghai: Writers Club Press, 2001.Badan Pusat Statistik (BPS). Indonesian Statistics, Jakarta,2005.Burnham, Gracia, with Dean Merrill. In the Presence of MyEnemies. Wheaton, Illinois: Tyndale House Publishers, Inc.,2003.Collier, Paul, and Anke Hoeffler. Justice-Seeking and Loot-Seeking in Civil War. Washington DC: The World Bank,February 17, 1999.Collier, Paul. “Doing Well Out of War: An EconomicPerspective.” Eds. Berdal, Mats and David Malone. Greed andGrievance: Economic Agenda in Civil Wars. Ottawa: LynneRienner Publisher, 2000, 91-112.Gunaratna, Rohan, Arabinda Acharya, and Sabrinda Chua.Asian Transformations in ActionThe Work of the 2006/2007 API Fellows