Islamic Philosophy from Its Origin to the Present: Philosophy in the ...

Dimensions of the Islamic Intellectual Tradition 143
pendent features, were close to the mashshå˘¥ school. Others such as
Abu˘l-Barakåt al-Baghdåd¥, although in many ways anti-Peripatetic,
especially in the field of natural philosophy, sought to improve upon
Ibn S¥nå’s philosophy. 37 Yet others were completely independent. As
mentioned in the last chapter of this group the most important are
Mu±ammad ibn Zakariyyå˘ al-Råz¥ (the Latin Rhazes) and Ab¨ Ray±ån
al-B¥r¨n¥. Between these two colossal figures Råz¥ is philosophically
more important, while al-B¥r¨n¥ is possibly the greatest scholar/scientist
that Islamic civilization has produced. Before turning to Råz¥, however,
a word must be said about two thinkers who are considered as
epitomes of antiprophetic and antireligious thought in Islam and who
antedated Råz¥. The first is Ab¨ Is±åq al-Warråq, who lived in Baghdad
in the beginning of the third/ninth century. Originally a Mu‘tazilite
theologian, he left the Mu‘tazilite circle and was then accused of heresy,
Manichaeanism, dualism, and even atheism. Since his works have
been lost, we know him only through fragments of his writings quoted
by others who were often his enemies. It is certain, however, that he
had Shi‘ite tendencies, and the accusations against him came from the
Mu‘tazilite camp, which he had abandoned. Certain later Shi‘ite authorities
such as the famous Safavid philosopher M¥r Dåmåd even
praised him. However, what is interesting is that because he was accused
of the rejection of religion based on the Oneness of God, his
many works, which some have considered to be as many as eighty,
including a number of philosophical and theological works, were lost.
This means that this kind of thought could not flourish in the climate
where prophecy remained a central reality. We see the same situation
in the case of the writings of Råz¥.
A second figure, Ibn al-Råwand¥, who lived in the second half of
the third/ninth century and who was a student of al-Warråq, has had
the same reputation as his teacher as far as heretical antireligious ideas
are concerned, although he harbored enmity against his teacher. Ibn
al-Råwand¥ was also originally a Mu‘tazilite who left the school. It is
said that as a result of becoming destitute and having to live in extreme
poverty, he lost faith in God’s justice and turned against religion.
His Kitåb al-zumurrud (The Book of the Emerald), which rejected
prophecy was later criticized strongly and refuted by the Ismå‘¥l¥ thinker
al-Mu˘ayyad fi˘l-D¥n Sh¥råz¥. Throughout Islamic history his name has
become, along with those of al-Warråq and Råz¥, exemplary of thinkers
and philosophers who lived in the land of prophecy but who did not
heed its call and therefore cannot be properly called members of the
Islamic philosophical tradition in its mainstream, although their ideas
were debated by many later thinkers, this being especially true of Råz¥.