Second Language Acquisition and Second ... - Stephen Krashen

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owe its source to Piaget's Formal Operations stage. Affective changes that occur around puberty, some related to Formal Operations, affect language acquisition. The chapter concludes with a re-definition of the "good language learner", now defined as someone who is first and foremost an acquirer, and who may also be an "optimal Monitor user". Chapter 2 originally appeared in Diller (1980). Formal and Informal Linguistic Environments Chapter 3 is a revised version of a paper that appeared in the TESOL Quarterly in 1976 (see Krashen, 1976a). It shows how the acquisition-learning distinction helps to solve a puzzle in the second language acquisition research literature: several studies apparently show that formal learning environments are best for attaining second language proficiency, while other studies appear to show that informal environments are superior. In this section, it is argued that informal environments, when they promote real language use (communication) are conducive to acquisition, while the formal environment has the potential for encouraging both acquisition and learning. This chapter, then, begins the discussion of the potential of the second language classroom for language acquisition, a discussion that is continued in later sections (Chapters 8 and 9). The Domain of the Conscious Grammar: The Morpheme Studies Chapter 4 reviews research pertaining to acquisition or difficulty order of certain structures, that is, which structures adult second language acquirers tend to acquire early and which they tend to acquire late. The value of these studies is considerable. They provide more information than merely showing us the actual order of acquisition. They also show us when performers are using conscious grammar and when they are not. We have hypothesized that when conditions for "Monitor-free" performance are met, when performers are focused on communication and not form, adult errors in English as a second language (for grammatical morphemes in obligatory occasions 1 ) are quite similar to errors made by children acquiring English as a second 6
language (some similarities to first language acquisition have been noted as well). When second language speakers "monitor", when they focus on form, this "natural order" is disturbed. The appearance of child-like errors in Monitor-free conditions is hypothesized to be a manifestation of the acquired system operating in isolation, or with little influence of the Monitor. Current research in the "morpheme studies" supports the hypothesis that second language performers utilize the conscious grammar extensively only when they have to do extreme "discrete-point" grammar tests, test that test knowledge of rules and vocabulary in isolation. Also included in Chapter 4 is a response to some criticisms of the morpheme studies. Material in Chapter 4 was previously published in Gingras (Krashen, 1978b) and in a paper appearing in On TESOL '77 (Krashen, 1977a). The Role of the First Language Chapter 5 deals with so-called first language "interference". It attempts to provide some empirical data for a position first held by Newmark (1966): "interference" is not the first language "getting in the way" of second language skills. Rather, it is the result of the performer "falling back" on old knowledge when he or she has not yet Fig. 2. First language influence in second language performance. acquired enough of the second language. In terms of the Monitor performance model, interference is the result of the use of the first language as an utterance initiator: first language competence may replace acquired second language competence in the performance model, as in Fig. 2. From the data we have so far, this hypothesis correctly predicts that those aspects of syntax that tend to be acquired are also those that show first-language-influenced errors in second language performance. 7
Page 1 and 2: Second Language Acquisition and Sec
Page 3 and 4: Acknowledgments I would like to tha
Page 5 and 6: Introduction This book is concerned
Page 7 and 8: performance..." (p.35). Corder (196
Page 9: when it does not get in the way of
Page 13 and 14: In the second part of this chapter,
Page 15 and 16: far more valuable then the exercise
Page 17 and 18: Monitoring generally improves accur
Page 19 and 20: overconcern with correctness, howev
Page 21 and 22: language is spoken or may be expose
Page 23 and 24: 2. Attitude and Aptitude in Second
Page 25 and 26: 1973, p. 8). Carroll also suggests
Page 27 and 28: outines and patterns, and at a more
Page 29 and 30: Sentences, Paired Associates, and S
Page 31 and 32: stay-ins appeared to be integrative
Page 33 and 34: motivation played no role because o
Page 35 and 36: (1977), after interviewing teachers
Page 37 and 38: did not produce the same results. T
Page 39 and 40: a stage many people, but not all, r
Page 41 and 42: The Good Language Learner Revisited
Page 43 and 44: predict differences in student achi
Page 45 and 46: settle the issue of whether adults
Page 47 and 48: language had higher scores than stu
Page 49 and 50: Table 1. English proficiency and ye
Page 51 and 52: The "self-study" reinterpretation o
Page 53 and 54: series the evidence for learning is
Page 55 and 56: 4. The Domain of the Conscious Gram
Page 57 and 58: Ann Fathman, confirmed our earlier
Page 59 and 60: significant differences for any of
Page 61 and 62:
Table 1. Studies analyzing grammati
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Table 3. Counterexamples to orderin
Page 65 and 66:
Table 4 (cont.) ___________________
Page 67 and 68:
ut *der Katze Ohr (The cat's ear).
Page 69 and 70:
Research Findings 1. First language
Page 71 and 72:
First-language-influenced errors he
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and (4) Ich weiss nicht, I know not
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ain", the right hemisphere, appears
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second language acquisition in adul
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hemisphere is removed, and the pati
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Monitor, to exist, and the degree t
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advantage in the first language. En
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while English "orients its users to
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7. On Routines and Patterns in Lang
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adulthood. A. Smith (1966) describe
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"That's a _______") which were char
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variation. Nelson, for example, dis
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which he had learned by imitation.
Page 97 and 98:
and often incorporated them into hi
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what utterances mean by observing h
Page 101 and 102:
Furthermore, she associated strings
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and patterns other than as discours
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similar difficulty orders for gramm
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understanding language that is "a l
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up to the intermediate level. As Wa
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practical only in a foreign languag
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is making some effort at making him
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It may be useful to distinguish thr
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the luxury of building up acquired
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marker /-s/, and the regular and ir
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to speak the language they were lea
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9. The Theoretical and Practical Re
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contact with. "Teacher-talk" is the
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language in Los Angeles. S. K. also
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Caretaker Speech and Language Acqui
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speech is so well rooted in the "he
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speech is: they are simpler than na
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Freed (1980) reports that foreigner
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e boredom. When they overshoot, the
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class was conducted entirely in Fre
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more expansions as well as repetiti
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Broen, P. (1972) The Verbal Environ
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Dulay, H. and M. Burt (1977) "Remar
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Hakuta, K. and H. Cancino (1977) "T
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Learning Aptitude. Rowley, Ma.: New
Page 151 and 152:
Academy of Aphasia. Victoria, Briti
Page 153 and 154:
Smith, A. (1966) "Speech and other
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Second Language Acquisition and Second ... - Stephen Krashen

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