Second Language Acquisition and Second ... - Stephen Krashen

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and teacher may also be manifestations of self-confidence and/or integrative motivation, and for this reason may also relate to acquisition. In addition, we would expect students with such attitudes to apply themselves more, resulting in more learning. In addition, students who have an analytic orientation should do better in conscious language learning. Subjects who report themselves as more "analytic" or who show test behavior reflecting and analytic cognitive style (e.g. field independent) should do better in conscious learning, and might show a better attitude toward a more analytically oriented classroom, resulting in more acquisition (see above). 3 Empirical Studies of Aptitude and Attitude If aspects of aptitude relate directly to conscious language learning, while attitudinal factors generally relate to subconscious language acquisition, certain predictions should hold true. Below we examine these predictions and the supporting evidence. Prediction no. 1. Attitude and aptitude will be statistically independent, as they relate to very different and independent parts of the language performance and internalization model. Of course, this is a well-established result. Carroll (1963) reported that aptitude is not related to whether or not a person "likes foreign language study" (p. 115), and Gardner and Lambert have confirmed and replicated this result using standard aptitude tests and measures of integrative motivation many times (Gardner, 1960; Gardner and Lambert, 1959, 1972). Prediction no. 2. The aptitude factor will show a strong relationship to second language proficiency in "monitored" test situations and when conscious learning has been stressed in the classroom. Several studies support this. First, the validity of aptitude tests is usually determined by correlating scores with grades in foreign language classes and/or with pencil and paper grammar tests (Pimsleur, 1966; Carroll, 1963). Such correlations are occasionally, but not always, quite high. Similarly, Gardner (1960) concludes that "language aptitude appears to be of major importance in the acquisition of second language skills acquired through instruction" (p. 214). In his study, three subtests of Carroll's Psi-Lambda aptitude test (Words in 24
Sentences, Paired Associates, and Spelling Clues) related to several "school-type" tests of French as a foreign language (reading, vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation accuracy, and phonetic discrimination). Gardner and Lambert (1959) presented evidence that "school French achievement", represented by grades in French as well as overall grades, is strongly related to performance on the Words in Sentences subtest of the MLAT, "suggesting that the student who is aware of grammatical distinctions in English will do well in French courses where the emphasis is on grammar" (p. 290). Gardner and Lambert also found a "linguistic reasoning factor": scores on the MLAT related to achievement in reading French, a French grammar test, and a test of phonetic discrimination. While these studies were carried out in Canadian English-speaking situations (Montreal), Gardner and Lambert's subsequent research in the United States (Gardner and Lambert, 1972) confirms these findings. Gardner, Smythe, Clement, and Gliksman (1976) also confirmed that aptitude related much more to classroom skills (grades) than to communicative skills (speech) in French as a foreign language in grades 7 to 11 in various English-speaking communities in Canada. The effects of aptitude on performance in general was stronger for older students, a finding we shall return to later. Also of interest is Bialystok and Fröhlich (1977), who studied ninth- and tenth-graders studying French in Toronto. In one or two schools examined, aptitude correlated with self-reports of conscious monitoring (r = 0.55). Finally, recall that Carroll defined aptitude as rate of learning, that is, students with higher aptitude will appear to learn faster than students with lower aptitude. This predicts that aptitude will show its strongest effects in a short, well-taught course (Carroll, 1963). Note in this regard that conscious learning may provide a short-cut to performance in a second language. As mentioned elsewhere (Krashen, 1978b; Krashen, 1977a), "learners" can use an acquisition-free mode of performance consisting of first language surface structure plus the Monitor. High-aptitude students should be more likely to be able to utilize this mode and thus may show more rapid initial progress. Over the long term, however, subconscious language acquisition is far superior, as the user of L1 surface structure plus the Monitor is 25
Page 1 and 2: Second Language Acquisition and Sec
Page 3 and 4: Acknowledgments I would like to tha
Page 5 and 6: Introduction This book is concerned
Page 7 and 8: performance..." (p.35). Corder (196
Page 9 and 10: when it does not get in the way of
Page 11 and 12: language (some similarities to firs
Page 13 and 14: In the second part of this chapter,
Page 15 and 16: far more valuable then the exercise
Page 17 and 18: Monitoring generally improves accur
Page 19 and 20: overconcern with correctness, howev
Page 21 and 22: language is spoken or may be expose
Page 23 and 24: 2. Attitude and Aptitude in Second
Page 25 and 26: 1973, p. 8). Carroll also suggests
Page 27: outines and patterns, and at a more
Page 31 and 32: stay-ins appeared to be integrative
Page 33 and 34: motivation played no role because o
Page 35 and 36: (1977), after interviewing teachers
Page 37 and 38: did not produce the same results. T
Page 39 and 40: a stage many people, but not all, r
Page 41 and 42: The Good Language Learner Revisited
Page 43 and 44: predict differences in student achi
Page 45 and 46: settle the issue of whether adults
Page 47 and 48: language had higher scores than stu
Page 49 and 50: Table 1. English proficiency and ye
Page 51 and 52: The "self-study" reinterpretation o
Page 53 and 54: series the evidence for learning is
Page 55 and 56: 4. The Domain of the Conscious Gram
Page 57 and 58: Ann Fathman, confirmed our earlier
Page 59 and 60: significant differences for any of
Page 61 and 62: Table 1. Studies analyzing grammati
Page 63 and 64: Table 3. Counterexamples to orderin
Page 65 and 66: Table 4 (cont.) ___________________
Page 67 and 68: ut *der Katze Ohr (The cat's ear).
Page 69 and 70: Research Findings 1. First language
Page 71 and 72: First-language-influenced errors he
Page 73 and 74: and (4) Ich weiss nicht, I know not
Page 75 and 76: ain", the right hemisphere, appears
Page 77 and 78: second language acquisition in adul
Page 79 and 80:
hemisphere is removed, and the pati
Page 81 and 82:
Monitor, to exist, and the degree t
Page 83 and 84:
advantage in the first language. En
Page 85 and 86:
while English "orients its users to
Page 87 and 88:
7. On Routines and Patterns in Lang
Page 89 and 90:
adulthood. A. Smith (1966) describe
Page 91 and 92:
"That's a _______") which were char
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variation. Nelson, for example, dis
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which he had learned by imitation.
Page 97 and 98:
and often incorporated them into hi
Page 99 and 100:
what utterances mean by observing h
Page 101 and 102:
Furthermore, she associated strings
Page 103 and 104:
and patterns other than as discours
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similar difficulty orders for gramm
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understanding language that is "a l
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up to the intermediate level. As Wa
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practical only in a foreign languag
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is making some effort at making him
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It may be useful to distinguish thr
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the luxury of building up acquired
Page 119 and 120:
marker /-s/, and the regular and ir
Page 121 and 122:
to speak the language they were lea
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9. The Theoretical and Practical Re
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contact with. "Teacher-talk" is the
Page 127 and 128:
language in Los Angeles. S. K. also
Page 129 and 130:
Caretaker Speech and Language Acqui
Page 131 and 132:
speech is so well rooted in the "he
Page 133 and 134:
speech is: they are simpler than na
Page 135 and 136:
Freed (1980) reports that foreigner
Page 137 and 138:
e boredom. When they overshoot, the
Page 139 and 140:
class was conducted entirely in Fre
Page 141 and 142:
more expansions as well as repetiti
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Broen, P. (1972) The Verbal Environ
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Dulay, H. and M. Burt (1977) "Remar
Page 147 and 148:
Hakuta, K. and H. Cancino (1977) "T
Page 149 and 150:
Learning Aptitude. Rowley, Ma.: New
Page 151 and 152:
Academy of Aphasia. Victoria, Briti
Page 153 and 154:
Smith, A. (1966) "Speech and other
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Second Language Acquisition and Second ... - Stephen Krashen

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