Second Language Acquisition and Second ... - Stephen Krashen

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"unnatural" adult second language performance. The children may be building up acquired competence via input, and several recent studies (Gary, 1974; Postovsky, 1977) imply that less insistence on early oral performance may be profitable for children and adults studying second languages in formal settings. The L1 plus Monitor Mode First language influence can thus be considered as unnatural. One could theoretically produce sentences in a second language without any acquisition: the first language surface structure can be used with second language content lexicon inserted. The Monitor may then be used to add some morphology and do its best to repair word order where it differs form the L2. One can only go so far with this mode, as one is limited by the competence of the conscious grammar and one must appeal to it with every utterance. The adult can, however, produce sentences right away in the target language using this mode, and this may help to account for reports of more rapid progress in early stages for adults than for children in second language performance (Snow and Hoefnagel-Hohle, 1978). It is a temporary advantage, however. Acquisition may be slow, but it is, in the long run, much more useful when language is used for the purpose of communication. 1 Note 1 Several recent papers point out that the hypothesis presented here, that we "fall back" on the first language when we have not acquired aspects of the second language, as stated here, is inadequate to account for all of the data. As Wode (1978) has pointed out, first-language-influenced errors may only occur at certain stages in development. Wode's example is quite clear, and is reviewed here. In English, the negative particle appears after the auxiliary, as in (1) I can not go, but before main verbs, with do-support, as in (2) I don't know. In German, however, the negative particle appears after both auxiliaries and main verbs, as in (3) Ich kann nicht gehen, I can not go, 68
and (4) Ich weiss nicht, I know not, Wode's children, German-speakers acquiring English as a second language in the United States, produced some sentences showing apparent first language influence, such as (5) John go not to the school. What is interesting, Wode points out, is that they did not produce such sentences early on. Their first attempts at negation were similar to what one sees in first language acquisition, such as (6) no, you (7) no play baseball. They only produced sentences such as (5) when they had begun to acquire the aux. + neg. rule, i.e. when they had begun to produce sentences such as (8) lunch is no ready. Only then did they "fall back" on the more general German rule. Wode (1978, 1979) suggests that there is, therefore, a structural prerequisite for first language influence: the performer's interlinguistic structural description, his idea of the target language rule, must be similar to the structural description of the rule in his first language. Wode's children's English negation rule was not at all similar to the German rule in early stages, but it became similar when they progressed to the aux.-neg. stage. Hence, first language influence appeared later, but not earlier. Also, consistent with his argument is the fact that sentences such as (5) are only found in child second language acquisition of English when the first language has post-verbal negation, as in Ravem (1968), in which the first language was Norwegian. Such sentences were not observed in other ESL studies utilizing different first languages (Milon, 1974, L1 = Japanese) and in studies of negation in English as a first language. Kellerman (1978) suggests another condition for "transfer" to occur. The acquirer must perceive a similarity between items in the first and second language. Items that appear to be language specific (e.g. idioms) will be less prone to transfer. These conditions are not contrary to the generalization presented here. It can still be maintained that we "fall back" on the first language when we have not acquired aspects of the second language. They show, however, that ignorance is not a sufficient condition for the occurrence of first language influence. 69
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Second Language Acquisition and Sec
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Acknowledgments I would like to tha
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Introduction This book is concerned
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performance..." (p.35). Corder (196
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when it does not get in the way of
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language (some similarities to firs
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In the second part of this chapter,
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far more valuable then the exercise
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Monitoring generally improves accur
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overconcern with correctness, howev
Page 21 and 22: language is spoken or may be expose
Page 23 and 24: 2. Attitude and Aptitude in Second
Page 25 and 26: 1973, p. 8). Carroll also suggests
Page 27 and 28: outines and patterns, and at a more
Page 29 and 30: Sentences, Paired Associates, and S
Page 31 and 32: stay-ins appeared to be integrative
Page 33 and 34: motivation played no role because o
Page 35 and 36: (1977), after interviewing teachers
Page 37 and 38: did not produce the same results. T
Page 39 and 40: a stage many people, but not all, r
Page 41 and 42: The Good Language Learner Revisited
Page 43 and 44: predict differences in student achi
Page 45 and 46: settle the issue of whether adults
Page 47 and 48: language had higher scores than stu
Page 49 and 50: Table 1. English proficiency and ye
Page 51 and 52: The "self-study" reinterpretation o
Page 53 and 54: series the evidence for learning is
Page 55 and 56: 4. The Domain of the Conscious Gram
Page 57 and 58: Ann Fathman, confirmed our earlier
Page 59 and 60: significant differences for any of
Page 61 and 62: Table 1. Studies analyzing grammati
Page 63 and 64: Table 3. Counterexamples to orderin
Page 65 and 66: Table 4 (cont.) ___________________
Page 67 and 68: ut *der Katze Ohr (The cat's ear).
Page 69 and 70: Research Findings 1. First language
Page 71: First-language-influenced errors he
Page 75 and 76: ain", the right hemisphere, appears
Page 77 and 78: second language acquisition in adul
Page 79 and 80: hemisphere is removed, and the pati
Page 81 and 82: Monitor, to exist, and the degree t
Page 83 and 84: advantage in the first language. En
Page 85 and 86: while English "orients its users to
Page 87 and 88: 7. On Routines and Patterns in Lang
Page 89 and 90: adulthood. A. Smith (1966) describe
Page 91 and 92: "That's a _______") which were char
Page 93 and 94: variation. Nelson, for example, dis
Page 95 and 96: which he had learned by imitation.
Page 97 and 98: and often incorporated them into hi
Page 99 and 100: what utterances mean by observing h
Page 101 and 102: Furthermore, she associated strings
Page 103 and 104: and patterns other than as discours
Page 105 and 106: similar difficulty orders for gramm
Page 107 and 108: understanding language that is "a l
Page 109 and 110: up to the intermediate level. As Wa
Page 111 and 112: practical only in a foreign languag
Page 113 and 114: is making some effort at making him
Page 115 and 116: It may be useful to distinguish thr
Page 117 and 118: the luxury of building up acquired
Page 119 and 120: marker /-s/, and the regular and ir
Page 121 and 122: to speak the language they were lea
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9. The Theoretical and Practical Re
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contact with. "Teacher-talk" is the
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language in Los Angeles. S. K. also
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Caretaker Speech and Language Acqui
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speech is so well rooted in the "he
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speech is: they are simpler than na
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Freed (1980) reports that foreigner
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e boredom. When they overshoot, the
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class was conducted entirely in Fre
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more expansions as well as repetiti
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Broen, P. (1972) The Verbal Environ
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Dulay, H. and M. Burt (1977) "Remar
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Hakuta, K. and H. Cancino (1977) "T
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Learning Aptitude. Rowley, Ma.: New
Page 151 and 152:
Academy of Aphasia. Victoria, Briti
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Smith, A. (1966) "Speech and other
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Second Language Acquisition and Second ... - Stephen Krashen

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