Second Language Acquisition and Second ... - Stephen Krashen

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similar to "known group validity". Case histories are examined in order to determine whether those acquirers who encountered any of the three sorts of simple codes described above had more success in second language acquisition, and whether those with less experience with these codes did worse. The standard literature provides surprisingly little information on this issue, 1 other than the Wagner-Gough and Hatch's case histories mentioned above. I will therefore describe one case history, not as definitive evidence for or against the efficacy of simple codes in second language acquisition, but as a sample, an illustrative example of how this sort of data, despite the inevitable confounds and difficulties inherent with self-report, might shed light on this question. Our subject is S. K., currently a professor of linguistics at a well-known university in Southern California. S. K. has attempted to acquire four different second languages during adulthood, two Indo-European (French and German) and two Semitic (Hebrew and Amharic). We first analyze the two Indo-European language with respect to the amount of simple input S. K. experienced and his relative success (see Table 1). Table 1. Interaction with simple codes for subject "S. K." _______________________________________________________________________ Target language Teacher-talk Interlanguage-talk Foreigner-talk _______________________________________________________________________ German + + + French + + - Hebrew + + + Amharic - - + _______________________________________________________________________ (Details in text.) S. K. reports that he received a relatively large amount of teacher-talk in both German and French. He attended a class in German as a second language during his entire 10-month stay in Vienna as a music student in his early 20's. The class was conducted entirely in German due to the presence of a linguistically heterogeneous student body. He also experienced a fair amount of teacher-talk in French, during a 1-month course in Paris at the Alliance Francaise, and more recently as a student in the Pucciani-Hamil method in French as a foreign 122
language in Los Angeles. S. K. also informs us that interlanguage-talk was available to him in both French and German. During his first few months in Austria, he was a member of a "foreign-student peer group" composed of foreign students from many different countries. Since the only language these students had in common was German, it was the lingua franca of the group. S. K. reports that other foreign students were his closest friends during his first few months in Austria. In French, S. K. also reports that a similar peer group was formed during his 1 month in Paris, and that he also used French a good deal as a lingua franca, as a common language with nonnative speakers of French while a Peace Corps Volunteer in Ethiopia (see below) and as a temporary member of a kibbutz in Israel. S. K. reports differences, however, with respect to foreigner-talk. S. K. began meeting native speakers of German more frequently after a few months in Austria, native speakers who became friends, and who, S. K. reports, took into account his less than perfect control of German. By the time S. K. left Austria, he felt quite at home with German, and experienced no particular hardships in communicating and understanding in formal and informal situations. S. K. says he received very little of such foreigner-talk in French, having stayed in Paris only 1 month and never having had a circle of native French speakers as friends. Despite a similar amount of formal instruction in both French and German (about 3 years' study of each), S. K. reports that his German is much better. While he can express himself in French and easily read fairly difficult material, he reports serious problems in listening comprehension and less feel for phrasing and finding the right word. To this point, this case history suggests that teacher-talk and interlanguage-talk may be useful for attaining low-intermediate levels of competence, and that foreignertalk may provide a bridge to high intermediate and advanced levels of competence. This is supported by a consideration of S. K.'s experiences with Hebrew and Amharic. S. K.'s Hebrew experiences took place on an "Ulpan" program over 5 months' time on a kibbutz in northern Israel. The class was taught entirely in Hebrew and lasted 4 hours a day. As in the cases above, S. K. also had a great deal of use of Hebrew as a common language with other foreigners, this time with other Ulpan class members. In addition, S. K. got to know many native Israelis on the kibbutz who 123
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Second Language Acquisition and Sec
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Acknowledgments I would like to tha
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Introduction This book is concerned
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performance..." (p.35). Corder (196
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when it does not get in the way of
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language (some similarities to firs
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In the second part of this chapter,
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far more valuable then the exercise
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Monitoring generally improves accur
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overconcern with correctness, howev
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language is spoken or may be expose
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2. Attitude and Aptitude in Second
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1973, p. 8). Carroll also suggests
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outines and patterns, and at a more
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Sentences, Paired Associates, and S
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stay-ins appeared to be integrative
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motivation played no role because o
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(1977), after interviewing teachers
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did not produce the same results. T
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a stage many people, but not all, r
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The Good Language Learner Revisited
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predict differences in student achi
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settle the issue of whether adults
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language had higher scores than stu
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Table 1. English proficiency and ye
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The "self-study" reinterpretation o
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series the evidence for learning is
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4. The Domain of the Conscious Gram
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Ann Fathman, confirmed our earlier
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significant differences for any of
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Table 1. Studies analyzing grammati
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Table 3. Counterexamples to orderin
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Table 4 (cont.) ___________________
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ut *der Katze Ohr (The cat's ear).
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Research Findings 1. First language
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First-language-influenced errors he
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and (4) Ich weiss nicht, I know not
Page 75 and 76: ain", the right hemisphere, appears
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Page 79 and 80: hemisphere is removed, and the pati
Page 81 and 82: Monitor, to exist, and the degree t
Page 83 and 84: advantage in the first language. En
Page 85 and 86: while English "orients its users to
Page 87 and 88: 7. On Routines and Patterns in Lang
Page 89 and 90: adulthood. A. Smith (1966) describe
Page 91 and 92: "That's a _______") which were char
Page 93 and 94: variation. Nelson, for example, dis
Page 95 and 96: which he had learned by imitation.
Page 97 and 98: and often incorporated them into hi
Page 99 and 100: what utterances mean by observing h
Page 101 and 102: Furthermore, she associated strings
Page 103 and 104: and patterns other than as discours
Page 105 and 106: similar difficulty orders for gramm
Page 107 and 108: understanding language that is "a l
Page 109 and 110: up to the intermediate level. As Wa
Page 111 and 112: practical only in a foreign languag
Page 113 and 114: is making some effort at making him
Page 115 and 116: It may be useful to distinguish thr
Page 117 and 118: the luxury of building up acquired
Page 119 and 120: marker /-s/, and the regular and ir
Page 121 and 122: to speak the language they were lea
Page 123 and 124: 9. The Theoretical and Practical Re
Page 125: contact with. "Teacher-talk" is the
Page 129 and 130: Caretaker Speech and Language Acqui
Page 131 and 132: speech is so well rooted in the "he
Page 133 and 134: speech is: they are simpler than na
Page 135 and 136: Freed (1980) reports that foreigner
Page 137 and 138: e boredom. When they overshoot, the
Page 139 and 140: class was conducted entirely in Fre
Page 141 and 142: more expansions as well as repetiti
Page 143 and 144: Broen, P. (1972) The Verbal Environ
Page 145 and 146: Dulay, H. and M. Burt (1977) "Remar
Page 147 and 148: Hakuta, K. and H. Cancino (1977) "T
Page 149 and 150: Learning Aptitude. Rowley, Ma.: New
Page 151 and 152: Academy of Aphasia. Victoria, Briti
Page 153 and 154: Smith, A. (1966) "Speech and other
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Second Language Acquisition and Second ... - Stephen Krashen

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