Second Language Acquisition and Second ... - Stephen Krashen

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not exist and performers rely solely on patterns and routine to communicate. 2. Prefabricated routines may evolve into patterns, but at the same time, independently, the creative construction process develops. This implies that in some situations propositional language may "catch up" with automatic speech--that is, the language acquisition process may "reanalyze" patterns and routines as creative constructions. 3. Prefabricated routines may evolve into prefabricated patterns (as in position 1) and these patterns may evolve directly into creative language. In other words routines and patterns may be ingredients of the creative process. The following sections will briefly review the literature on routine and patterns in neurolinguistics, child first language acquisition, child second language acquisition, and adult second language. We interpret this literature as fully consistent with only position 2. Neurolinguistic Status of Automatic Speech Van Lancker (1972, p.25) defines automatic speech as "conventional greetings, overused and overlearned expressions (such as 'be careful' and 'first things first'), pause fillers such as 'you know' and 'well', certain idioms, swearing, and other emotional language, perhaps stereotyped questions and answers, commands, ...". Automatic speech (AS) thus appears to share some of the characteristics of routines and patterns. The most striking neurolinguistic fact about automatic speech is that AS, as contrasted with propositional language, which is lateralized to the left hemisphere (see Krashen, 1976b, for a review), may be represented in both sides of the brain. That is, automatic speech is localized in both the right and left cerebral hemispheres. The primary evidence for this is the fact that routines and patterns are often preserved in case of nonfluent (syntactic) aphasia and after left hemispherectomy. Patients who have suffered left brain damage, who have lost the ability to speak, can often use automatic speech, as can those who have undergone removal of the left hemisphere during 84
adulthood. A. Smith (1966) describes a case of a man who underwent left hemispherectomy at age 48. The surgery left him nearly totally speechless: "E. C.'s attempts to reply to questions immediately after operation were totally unsuccessful. He would open his mouth and utter isolated words, and after apparently struggling to organize words for meaningful speech, recognized his inability and would utter expletives or short emotional phrases (e.g. 'Goddamit'). Expletive and curses were well articulated and clearly understandable. However, he could not repeat single words on command or communicate in propositional speech until 10 weeks post-operative." Expressive speech showed some development in E. C., but Smith reported that his creative language was still "severely impaired" 8 months after the operation. A patient studied by Whitaker (1971) suffering from nonfluent aphasia exhibited an interesting sort of automatic speech behavior: he responded to nearly every question or attempt at conversation with the utterance "What'cha gonno do right now? yea yea". Whitaker points out to the student of neurolinguistics that one cannot use such utterances as data in determining a patient's true linguistic competence "... on the basis of (this one) utterance, it would be rather farfetched to assume that L. S. (the patient) had retained the WH-question transformation and correct pronominal reference. ..." (pp. 145-146). Thought to be related to automatic speech are "ictal speech mechanism", words or utterances spoken by psychomotor epileptics during, before, or immediately after seizures. Ictal speech mechanisms consist of stereotyped expressions ("I beg your pardon") and emotional utterances which are spoken out of context. As in the case with AS associated with the right side of the brain as well as the left, Serafatinides and Falconer (1963), in agreement with other studies, found that "of 15 patients with truly ictal speech automatisms 4 were operated on the left side and 11 on the right or recessive side" (p. 345). The neurolinguistic evidence, then, points to the fact that automatic speech is neurologically different from creative language in that it is localized on both sides of the brain, as opposed to just the left hemisphere, and can be preserved in cases of aphasia. If AS is related to routines and patterns, then routines and patterns may have a 85
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Second Language Acquisition and Sec
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Acknowledgments I would like to tha
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Introduction This book is concerned
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performance..." (p.35). Corder (196
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when it does not get in the way of
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language (some similarities to firs
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In the second part of this chapter,
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far more valuable then the exercise
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Monitoring generally improves accur
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overconcern with correctness, howev
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language is spoken or may be expose
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2. Attitude and Aptitude in Second
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1973, p. 8). Carroll also suggests
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outines and patterns, and at a more
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Sentences, Paired Associates, and S
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stay-ins appeared to be integrative
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motivation played no role because o
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(1977), after interviewing teachers
Page 37 and 38: did not produce the same results. T
Page 39 and 40: a stage many people, but not all, r
Page 41 and 42: The Good Language Learner Revisited
Page 43 and 44: predict differences in student achi
Page 45 and 46: settle the issue of whether adults
Page 47 and 48: language had higher scores than stu
Page 49 and 50: Table 1. English proficiency and ye
Page 51 and 52: The "self-study" reinterpretation o
Page 53 and 54: series the evidence for learning is
Page 55 and 56: 4. The Domain of the Conscious Gram
Page 57 and 58: Ann Fathman, confirmed our earlier
Page 59 and 60: significant differences for any of
Page 61 and 62: Table 1. Studies analyzing grammati
Page 63 and 64: Table 3. Counterexamples to orderin
Page 65 and 66: Table 4 (cont.) ___________________
Page 67 and 68: ut *der Katze Ohr (The cat's ear).
Page 69 and 70: Research Findings 1. First language
Page 71 and 72: First-language-influenced errors he
Page 73 and 74: and (4) Ich weiss nicht, I know not
Page 75 and 76: ain", the right hemisphere, appears
Page 77 and 78: second language acquisition in adul
Page 79 and 80: hemisphere is removed, and the pati
Page 81 and 82: Monitor, to exist, and the degree t
Page 83 and 84: advantage in the first language. En
Page 85 and 86: while English "orients its users to
Page 87: 7. On Routines and Patterns in Lang
Page 91 and 92: "That's a _______") which were char
Page 93 and 94: variation. Nelson, for example, dis
Page 95 and 96: which he had learned by imitation.
Page 97 and 98: and often incorporated them into hi
Page 99 and 100: what utterances mean by observing h
Page 101 and 102: Furthermore, she associated strings
Page 103 and 104: and patterns other than as discours
Page 105 and 106: similar difficulty orders for gramm
Page 107 and 108: understanding language that is "a l
Page 109 and 110: up to the intermediate level. As Wa
Page 111 and 112: practical only in a foreign languag
Page 113 and 114: is making some effort at making him
Page 115 and 116: It may be useful to distinguish thr
Page 117 and 118: the luxury of building up acquired
Page 119 and 120: marker /-s/, and the regular and ir
Page 121 and 122: to speak the language they were lea
Page 123 and 124: 9. The Theoretical and Practical Re
Page 125 and 126: contact with. "Teacher-talk" is the
Page 127 and 128: language in Los Angeles. S. K. also
Page 129 and 130: Caretaker Speech and Language Acqui
Page 131 and 132: speech is so well rooted in the "he
Page 133 and 134: speech is: they are simpler than na
Page 135 and 136: Freed (1980) reports that foreigner
Page 137 and 138: e boredom. When they overshoot, the
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class was conducted entirely in Fre
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more expansions as well as repetiti
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Broen, P. (1972) The Verbal Environ
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Dulay, H. and M. Burt (1977) "Remar
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Hakuta, K. and H. Cancino (1977) "T
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Learning Aptitude. Rowley, Ma.: New
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Academy of Aphasia. Victoria, Briti
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Smith, A. (1966) "Speech and other
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Second Language Acquisition and Second ... - Stephen Krashen

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