Second Language Acquisition and Second ... - Stephen Krashen
Second Language Acquisition and Second ... - Stephen Krashen
Second Language Acquisition and Second ... - Stephen Krashen
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practical only in a foreign language situation, where the teacher is also a speaker of<br />
the (one) student native language, but it does give the possibility for massive<br />
amounts of intake. A USC graduate student, John Cromshaw, has also come up with<br />
an interesting innovation which he calls "Intercambio". In intercambio, as it is<br />
practiced at USC, Americans studying Spanish as a foreign language are teamed<br />
with Spanish-speaking ESL students, <strong>and</strong> are encouraged to converse on various<br />
topics. The rule is: speak your own language! Cromshaw reports that even less<br />
advanced students exchange enormous amounts of information with each other, <strong>and</strong><br />
often, involuntarily, begin to speak in the target language. These approaches have<br />
been validated only informally, but early reports of their success have been quite<br />
encouraging.<br />
Several other activities, better known to the profession, may also fit the<br />
requirements for intake: extensive reading, as recommended by Newmark (1971),<br />
will certainly provide more intake than the difficult paragraphs that require<br />
cryptoanalytic decoding that we sometimes assign second language students. Also,<br />
the use of techniques such as Asher's "total physical response" (Asher, 1966, 1969)<br />
may also provide useful amounts of intake in the classroom, In Asher's approach,<br />
students remain silent in early stages, but are required to obey teacher comm<strong>and</strong>s in<br />
the target language, comm<strong>and</strong>s that require a "total physical response", beginning<br />
with simple imperatives ("sit down") to more complex sentences ("If John ran to the<br />
blackboard, run after him <strong>and</strong> hit him with your book"). There is some experimental<br />
evidence in Asher's papers that "TPR" does indeed work: foreign language students,<br />
after 32 hours of TPR, had significantly better listening comprehension scores than<br />
students in "ordinary" classes after 150 hours, <strong>and</strong> scores on other tests were about<br />
the same. Clearly, teacher input that stimulates a total physical response will be<br />
close to, if not totally intake: it is understood, at an appropriate level, <strong>and</strong> natural, its<br />
goal being communication.<br />
Before leaving the intake node of the "program tree", several points need<br />
clarification. First, I have posited that intake is fundamental to acquisition, <strong>and</strong> have<br />
not mentioned what function output may play. It may be argued that theoretically<br />
speaking <strong>and</strong> writing are not essential to acquisition. One can acquire "competence"<br />
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